Elizabeth Whitworth

Senior SEO Writer

Elizabeth has a lifelong love of books. She devours nonfiction, especially in the areas of history, theology, and philosophy. A switch to audiobooks has kindled her enjoyment of well-narrated fiction, particularly Victorian and early 20th-century works. She appreciates idea-driven books—and a classic murder mystery now and then. Elizabeth has a Substack and is writing a book about what the Bible says about death and hell.

Expertise

History, Theology, Government

Awards

Contributions to joint task force efforts (FBI), Contributions to Special Operations Division (DOJ & DEA), Efforts to fight the war on drugs (NSA), Contributions to Operation Storm Front (US Customs Service)

Henry David Thoreau’s Personality: Elusive Man of Multitudes

How do people regard Henry David Thoreau? Do they tend to take him too literally and, as a result, miss who he really was? It’s not unusual for someone to have a mixed reputation—because people are complicated. Henry David Thoreau is no exception. An essayist and a key figure in the Transcendentalist movement, Thoreau is still read by many and revered by some. Keep reading to learn about Henry David Thoreau’s personality from those who knew him and those who’ve read his works.

8 Bias Exercises: Clear Away the Clouds Between You & Reality

Do you know when you’re objectifying people? Are you susceptible to believing lies? Are you a hedgehog or a fox? Everyone has biases, but you can come out on top by recognizing what biases you have and taking steps to minimize their negative impact on the way you perceive reality. We put together eight bias exercises based on works by Malcolm Gladwell, Philip Tetlock, Lao Tzu, and others. Let’s dive into these exercises, which you can complete individually or with a group.

How to Define Bullshit: Is It Just a Modern Term for Rhetoric?

What does “bullshit” mean? Is it just another word for misinformation? Is it different from rhetoric? According to professors Carl T. Bergstrom and Jevin D. West, bullshit is defined as the use of misleading evidence to persuade an audience. They emphasize the importance of the phenomenon’s intent and how it’s put into operation. Read more to understand how to define “bullshit” according to Bergstrom and West in their book Calling Bullshit.

Bullshit Media: The Wild Propagation of Lies in the News & Online

Does it feel like you can’t keep up with all the misinformation out there—much less refute it? Are you stuck in an echo chamber? Bullshit can exist in any era. But, Carl T. Bergstrom and Jevin D. West contend that two components of contemporary society—the internet and the mainstream media—are particularly potent vehicles for spreading bullshit. Keep reading to understand the phenomenon of bullshit media.

The Observation Selection Effect: A Handy Tool for Bullshitters

How much damage can improper data collection create? How can manipulators leverage it for their own advantage? In Calling Bullshit, Carl T. Bergstrom and Jevin D. West contend that bullshit often arises when data-based arguments rely on flawed data. They explain how the observation selection effect is an example of this and show how some people take advantage of it to deliberately deceive others. Continue reading to learn about the observation selection effect and how it can wreak havoc.

Selection Bias in Statistics: 2 Ways Faulty Data Creates Bullshit

Should you trust data-based arguments? How can data go terribly wrong? In Calling Bullshit, Carl T. Bergstrom and Jevin D. West investigate how bullshit is created. They assert that it happens when people use faulty data as a basis for their arguments. Specifically, they say selection bias can lead to bullshit because it justifies faulty conclusions based on unrepresentative samples. Read more to understand how selection bias in statistics can lead to harmful misinformation.

Misinterpreting Data: 6 Ways Bullshitters Try to Fool You

Can you distinguish causation from correlation? Do you notice when numbers have been taken out of context? Unfortunately, some people manipulate data to mislead others. In their book Calling Bullshit, Carl T. Bergstrom and Jevin D. West argue that bullshitters make invalid inferences from valid data or visually misrepresent valid data in graphic form. Keep reading to learn how bullshitters purposely misinterpret data to draw unjustified conclusions.

Lies in Science: How a Focus on P-Values Leads to Bullshit

Is the institution of science immune from misinformation? How can there be lies in science when practitioners are committed to the scientific method? In Calling Bullshit, Carl T. Bergstrom and Jevin D. West argue that science’s focus on statistical significance gives rise to bullshit for two reasons: we can easily misinterpret what statistical significance means, and we’re exposed to statistically significant findings only because of publication bias. Let’s take a close look at both of these problematic dynamics in science.

Calling Bullshit: The Art of Skepticism in a Data-Driven World

Do you know bullshit when you see it? What do you do about it? Should you call it out? With the proliferation of misinformation online, in the news, and even in academia, the modern world is replete with nonsense and flat-out lies. In their book Calling Bullshit, Carl T. Bergstrom and Jevin D. West contend that anyone can learn how to detect and refute bullshit in its many forms. Continue reading for an overview of this book that’s more important than ever.

Bullshit: The Problem With Big Data You Should Know About

What’s big data? How helpful is training data? What can make it problematic? Professors Carl T. Bergstrom and Jevin D. West are so concerned about misinformation that they wrote a book about it. In Calling Bullshit, they argue that big data can foster bullshit because it can incorporate poor training data and find illusory connections by chance. Continue reading to learn about a problem with big data that should have everyone’s attention.