Aristotle’s Rhetorical Appeals—Pathos, Logos, Ethos, & Kairos

This article is an excerpt from the Shortform book guide to "Amplify Your Influence" by René Rodriguez. Shortform has the world's best summaries and analyses of books you should be reading.

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What are Aristotle’s rhetorical appeals? How can you use these appeals to successfully persuade an audience?

Aristotle’s rhetorical appeals are pathos, logos, ethos, and kairos. According to René Rodriguez in Amplify Your Influence, using all of these in a presentation is a surefire way to keep your audience engaged with your ideas.

Let’s look at how you can use these techniques to be the most persuasive speaker around.

The Basics of Persuasion

Rodriguez argues that successful communicators engage and inspire their audience (whoever they’re attempting to guide or persuade). As a communicator, your goal should be to convince your audience to change their behavior or take positive action. We’ll discuss Aristotle’s rhetorical appeals and how you can employ them to make your communication more effective, whether you’re conversing with loved ones, making sales pitches, or speaking in front of large audiences.

(Shortform note: Some communication experts state that one of the best ways to engage and inspire audiences is to present your ideas in an original way. Your audience is more likely to act on your ideas if your presentation departs from the formats typically used to communicate ideas in your field. For example, if you need an alternative to PowerPoint presentations (a commonly used format), consider drawing any visuals you need while you’re presenting. Watching you create something in real time might secure the audience’s attention.)

Aristotle’s Rhetorical Appeals

According to Rodriguez, you can engage and guide an audience successfully using four of the ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle’s rhetorical appeals (qualities of an argument that make it persuasive). For thousands of years, people have used these appeals to sway their audiences. Understanding and applying all four can help you build trust, interest, and rapport with an audience. 

(Shortform note: Successfully persuading an audience isn’t the only benefit of understanding Aristotle’s rhetorical appeals—in Thank You for Arguing, Jay Heinrichs states that this knowledge is also helpful when someone is trying to persuade you of something. When you understand rhetoric, you can quickly identify when others are using persuasive tactics, deflect these tactics if necessary, and discern what arguments are really about.)

Appeal #1: Pathos

Pathos is the appeal to emotion, and it allows you to connect with your audience on a personal level. When you successfully engage your audience using pathos, they can empathize with and relate to you. Additionally, Rodriguez argues, pathos is necessary when trying to persuade people to take action or change their behavior—people typically make decisions based on emotions, not logic. 

For example, the American Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals uses pathos to secure donations through TV commercials. They combine sad music and images of scared, abused animals to appeal to your empathy, making it more likely you’ll take action and offer money to help the animals.

(Shortform note: According to some psychologists, emotions (and thus, the pathos appeal) are strong motivators for decision-making and action because of how we evolved. Many emotions come from the amygdala, the part of the brain that processes fearful and threatening stimuli. When we perceive something as dangerous—like an aggressive animal, for example—emotions like fear motivate us to take swift action to increase our chance of survival.)

You can use pathos and appeal to your audience’s empathy through storytelling. When people are engaged in a story, they feel the emotions of the narrative as if they’re experiencing the events themselves. 

(Shortform note: Studies suggest that reading or listening to a story activates parts of the brain involved in determining other people’s motivations and predicting future behavior, meaning stories may help us see situations through someone else’s perspective. When we do this, we can empathize with the other person, as Rodriguez suggests. Additionally, storytelling can be a great way to move people to action—we’re more likely to change our behavior if a character we relate to in a story makes a similar change.)

Appeal #2: Ethos

Your ethos represents your credibility—it’s whatever allows you to speak with authority about a given topic and have people trust what you’re saying. Rodriguez argues that ethos includes whatever associations and brand people attach to you. The greater your ethos, the more people will listen to you. You can increase your ethos in many different ways—for example, publishing books and articles can build your credibility in your chosen topic or field.

(Shortform note: If the idea of publishing something about your chosen topic appeals to you as a way to build ethos, Never Eat Alone author Keith Ferrazzi suggests starting small, with an article rather than a book. Further, choose a smaller publication like a local newspaper or a trade publication to submit your article pitch to. This will increase the likelihood that your pitch will be accepted.)

Appeal #3: Logos

Rodriguez defines logos as the appeal of logic and reason. If pathos and ethos tell your audience why they should buy into your message, then logos represents what they’re buying into. Without logical reasoning, the audience may be unable to truly understand your main idea, leaving them unable to act on it. Your logos appeal might include data, numbers, statistics, and so on—anything that’s based on facts and reason. 

For example, say you’re trying to sell a washing machine to a customer. Your logos appeal might center around data that show how much longer the washing machine lasts than other models or the great deal you offer that beats other stores’ prices. 

(Shortform note: The opposite of a strong logos appeal based on reason, facts, and numbers is a logical fallacy. Fallacies are arguments based on faulty reasoning, irrelevant information, or unprovable claims. For example, a hasty generalization is a fallacy in which you form a conclusion using distorted or inadequate evidence—like assuming that smoking a pack of cigarettes every day won’t have any health repercussions because you had a relative who was a heavy smoker and lived to be 90. Studying common logical fallacies can help you avoid them in your communication and thus avoid misleading, confusing, or losing the trust of your audience.) 

Appeal #4: Kairos

Rodriguez states that kairos isn’t as well-known as the first three rhetorical appeals, but it’s just as important. It represents the relevance your ideas have to your specific audience. The same information can mean different things to different people, so you have to deliver your argument at the right time, in the right place, and in the right way for the people you’re trying to reach. If you don’t, then it doesn’t matter how interesting, qualified, or proficient you are—you’ll lose the audience’s interest.

For example, let’s return to the washing machine scenario. Say you’re selling to a young, single professional. If you base your sales pitch on the idea that the washing machine is large and efficient enough to fulfill the laundry needs of a big family, your customer will likely lose interest, as that specific benefit isn’t relevant to their needs. Instead, focus on how convenient the quick-wash setting is for people with limited time or how the energy efficiency of the washing machine will save them money. This would be more relevant information for a busy young professional with limited funds and, therefore, it’s more likely to persuade the customer to purchase the washing machine. 

(Shortform note: According to some experts on rhetoric, kairos is important beyond its role as an isolated appeal—its emphasis on delivering a message at the right time can also enhance your pathos appeal. Appeals to emotion are more powerful if they’re delivered when people’s emotions are already heightened. For example, we’re more likely to give to charity after a tragic world event because our increased feelings of sadness and compassion make us want to help others.)

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Here's what you'll find in our full Amplify Your Influence summary:

• How you can help others reach their goals and improve their behavior
• How to use Aristotle's four rhetoric appeals to connect with an audience
• Tips on what to do before, during, and after a presentation

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