Shortform Books

The Primacy and Recency Effect—Explained

What is the primacy and recency effect? Why do we tend to remember the first and the last items well, and the middle ones poorly? The primacy and recency effect (also known as the serial-position effect) is the tendency to recall the first and the last items in a series well, and the middle ones poorly. There’s no consensus as to why this phenomenon occurs, but there are a couple of theories. Keep reading to learn about the primacy and recency effect, why it occurs, and how to overcome it.

False Causality: Correlation Doesn’t Equal Causation

What is false causality? Why do we assume causality where there is none? Humans struggle to interpret cause and effect because they confuse correlation with causation, assuming causality where there is none. For example, if a person gets the flu after they start taking vitamins, they might assume a causal relationship—taking vitamins gave them the flu—simply because the timing coincides. Let’s consider some ways the assumption of causality (where there’s none) impairs logic.

The Psychology of In-Group, Out-Group Bias

What is the in-group, out-group bias? Why do we prioritize people who belong to our in-group? In-group, out-group bias is the tendency to favor and give preferential treatment to members of the same group. By categorizing yourself as a member of a group, you make that membership part of your identity and thus focus on its positive traits. Here’s why people tend to prioritize their in-group, according to Rolf Dobelli, the author of The Art of Thinking Clearly.

How to Use Logos in a Persuasive Argument

What is logos in the context of persuasion? How do you use logos in a persuasive argument? Logos, in terms of a persuasive argument, is appealing to the audience’s logic or reason. Jay Heinrichs, the author of Thank You for Arguing, outlines four steps for using logos to your advantage. Here’s how to use logos in a persuasive argument.

The 3 Elements of Ethos: Persuasion Basics

What is ethos in the context of persuasion? How can you use the three elements of ethos to make a persuasive argument? Ethos is used in persuasive arguments to establish trustworthiness and credibility as a speaker or writer. There are three essential elements to developing ethos: virtue, personal disinterest, and practical wisdom. Keep reading to learn about the three building blocks of ethos and how to use them in a persuasive argument.

The Psychology of Memory: Errors and Fallacies

Is memory a fixed record of the past? Do we always recall memories in their original state? People believe their memories are untouchable, stored away, and recalled when needed in perfect condition. However, this isn’t the case. Memory errors are proof that memory isn’t a fixed record of past events—your memory of the past is affected by your feelings, opinions, and situation. Here are some of the most common fallacies and situations in which your memory is unreliable.

Coincidence and the Law of Very Large Numbers

What is the law of very large numbers? How does the law of very large numbers help explain coincidences? The law of very large numbers is one of the key concepts in probability and statistics. The concept is quite simple: with a sample that’s large enough, even the most improbable events could happen. Keep reading to learn about the law of very large numbers and how it explains coincidences and improbable events.

Reciprocity: The Psychology of Giving Back

What is the psychology behind reciprocity? Why do we feel the need to reciprocate benevolent behavior? In social psychology, reciprocity is the tendency to return a favor or a benevolent action with another benevolent action. According to Rolf Dobelli, the author of The Art of Thinking Clearly, this phenomenon is a by-product of the human need to belong to a group. Keep reading to learn about the phenomenon of reciprocity, why it occurs, and how it’s used as a tool for manipulation.

Persuasive Argument: What It Is and How to Build One

What is a persuasive argument? What are the key building blocks of an argument that is meant to persuade? A persuasive argument consists of three steps: choosing a goal, choosing a tense, and choosing an appeal. In a persuasive argument, you’ll typically use Aristotle’s three classical persuasive appeals—ethos, logos, and pathos—to achieve your goal. Continue below to learn how to construct a persuasive argument.

The Dangers of the Single-Cause Fallacy

What is the single cause fallacy? Why does it occur? The single cause fallacy is where you attribute an outcome to a single, simple cause. The single cause fallacy occurs because we dislike uncertainty, and a single-cause pattern provides a sense of understanding. When people feel like they understand a situation, not only are they less uncertain, but they can also better withstand any uncertainty they do feel. Keep reading to learn about the fallacy of the single cause, why it occurs, and how to overcome it.