Use Second-Order Thinking to Make Better Choices

This article is an excerpt from the Shortform book guide to "The Paradox of Choice" by Barry Schwartz. Shortform has the world's best summaries and analyses of books you should be reading.

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What is second-order thinking? How can you use second-order thinking to prioritize decision-making?

Second-order thinking is a process that you can use to make better and more deliberate decisions. During second-order thinking, you think about the consequences of your choices in order to make more informed decisions. There are four categories of second-order decisions: rules, presumptions, standards, and routines.

Continue reading to learn more about each type of second-order decision.

How to Prioritize Decisions

In addition to narrowing our freedom of choice by engaging in close relationships, Schwartz recommends deciding which choices to spend time on, and which to make without much deliberation. 

Schwartz cites the work of Cass Sunstein and Edna Ullmann-Margalit, who described decisions we shouldn’t have to think carefully about, and can therefore automate, as second-order decisions, or second-order thinking. They identify four categories of second-order decisions: rules, presumptions, standards, and routines. Incorporating each into your life can reduce stress by limiting the number of decisions you need to make. 

Second-Order Decisions and the Legal System

Schwartz focuses on individualized second-order decisions, like sticking to a morning routine. However, second-order (automated) decisions may also encompass higher-stakes decisions, such as those involving the legal system. 

In a 1999 paper, Sunstein and Ullmann-Margalit wrote ​​that institutions and the legal system use second-order decisions as often as average people do

As examples, Sunstein and Ullmann-Margalit cited legal authorities enforcing speed limit laws (which fall under rules), or government agencies setting limits on energy use for corporations, which can be appealed if necessary (an example of presumptions).

Schwartz’s view on second-order decisions is more casual and low-stakes, since he’s only discussing them in terms of individuals. However, it is important to note that all decisions have consequences, and you should be able to revisit and reconsider second-order decisions if you think they could have a negative impact. 

Rules

Sunstein and Ullmann-Margalit’s first category of second-order decisions is rules. By making rules for ourselves about certain choices, we can alleviate the burden of many choices in our lives. 

For example, we all technically have the choice of whether or not to stop at a stop sign. Most people, though, make a rule for themselves to always stop. This makes the decision automatic so they don’t need to think about it. 

The law makes this an easy rule to follow, but there are many non-legal scenarios for creating your own rules, as well. For example, you could make a rule to always call your mother on Mother’s Day, or to never break a promise made to a friend. Rules like these can significantly help in social relationships, as well as limiting the time you spend making choices.

Strategies for Setting Rules

Some rules can be decided without much thought at all, like making a rule to follow the law. However, it can be difficult to determine what other choices you should make rules for. Psychology Today lists several types of decisions that are helpful to set rules for.

If there’s a product you use frequently, or often run out of, set a rule to always buy it when you see it in a store.Set a rule to never skimp when you need something—for example, always fill your tank with gas if you need it.When you have a routine, set a rule to always do it the same way. For example, if you already replace your toothbrush several times a year, you could set a rule to buy a new toothbrush every three months.

Presumptions

The second category of second-order decisions is presumptions. Sunstein and Ullmann-Margalit assert that, like rules, presumptions are predetermined choices you make for yourself. However, you can easily change presumptions if necessary.

For example, if you start work five days a week at 9:00 a.m., you might set your alarm for 7:00 a.m. throughout the workweek. Your presumption is to wake up at 7:00 each day, so you have one less decision to make. However, if you have an 8:00 a.m. doctor’s appointment one day, you might set your alarm for earlier. The change of circumstance prompted you to change your presumption.

Presumptions and Writing

We all use presumptions in our daily lives, but they’re especially applicable to certain areas. When you write, for example, you use a multitude of presumptions, with many reasons to occasionally break them. This is true whether you’re writing an email to your boss, a letter to a friend, or a 400-page novel. 

Many grammar rules are presumptions: Starting a sentence with “and,” for example, is technically incorrect, but there are situations where it’s reasonable and effective. Presumptions are general guidelines to follow, but we allow room for flexibility when those guidelines don’t fit. 
Use Second-Order Thinking to Make Better Choices

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Like what you just read? Read the rest of the world's best book summary and analysis of Barry Schwartz's "The Paradox of Choice" at Shortform .

Here's what you'll find in our full The Paradox of Choice summary :

  • Why the more choices we have, the more stressed and indecisive we feel
  • How to better navigate our choices, from groceries to health insurance
  • Whether it's better to seek the best or accept "good enough"

Hannah Aster

Hannah graduated summa cum laude with a degree in English and double minors in Professional Writing and Creative Writing. She grew up reading fantasy books and has always carried a passion for fiction. However, Hannah transitioned to non-fiction writing when she started her travel website in 2018 and now enjoys sharing travel guides and trying to inspire others to see the world.

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