Do you wonder what your unique intelligence profile might look like? Have you ever felt smart in ways that traditional IQ tests don’t measure?
In his book Frames of Mind, Howard Gardner proposes that humans possess seven distinct types of intelligence rather than a single general capacity for learning. Gardner’s theory challenges the traditional view of intelligence, suggesting each person has different strengths across multiple intelligences.
Continue reading to discover how understanding your own intelligence profile could transform your approach to learning and problem-solving.
Overview of Frames of Mind by Howard Gardner
People commonly view intelligence as a single trait: a general capacity for learning and problem-solving that can be measured in IQ points. However, in his groundbreaking book Frames of Mind, Howard Gardner proposes that humans actually have numerous, distinct types of intelligence. He discusses seven in particular: linguistic intelligence, logical-mathematical intelligence, musical intelligence, spatial intelligence, bodily-kinesthetic intelligence, and intrapersonal and interpersonal intelligences. The book explains how each of these intelligences operates independently, has its own developmental trajectory, and can be impaired or improved separately from the others.
Gardner has dedicated his academic career to understanding human cognition and development. As a developmental psychologist, as well as a professor at Harvard University, he compiled decades of research and practical experience. While Gardner has dozens of books and hundreds of scientific articles to his name, he’s best known for developing the Theory of Multiple Intelligences, which he first laid out in Frames of Mind in 1983.
We’ll start this overview by explaining Gardner’s ideas about what intelligence is, as well as his criteria for identifying a particular type of intelligence. We’ll then discuss seven sets of cognitive abilities—which we’ve divided into three broader groups of intelligences (conceptual, physical, and personal)—and why Gardner believes that each of those sets qualifies as a distinct intelligence. Finally, we’ll explore how the existence of many types of intelligence (as opposed to a single general intelligence) could impact educational practices.
What Is Intelligence?
Gardner begins by explaining his concept of what intelligence is—or rather, what an intelligence is, since he says that there are multiple intelligences. An intelligence is a person’s capacity to understand a certain kind of information, then use that information to solve problems. An intelligence also gives someone the potential to find or invent new problems, allowing them to create new knowledge by solving those problems.
This definition is in line with the commonly understood definition of intelligence. However, this common definition posits that intelligence is a single trait, meaning each person has a certain level of general intelligence that they use to understand and apply every kind of information. Gardner dissents to this, arguing that there are numerous intelligences, each handling different kinds of information, and that each person has all of those intelligences to varying degrees.
For example, one intelligence that Gardner identified is logical-mathematical intelligence. As the name suggests, people use this intelligence to solve mathematical problems. People also use it to create or discover new information, such as when Sir Isaac Newton and Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz invented calculus—a collection of new mathematical functions with countless practical applications.
We’ll start by going over Gardner’s criteria for identifying a type of intelligence. We’ll then discuss how the physical structure of the brain supports the theory of multiple intelligences.
The Characteristics of Intelligence
Gardner presents some criteria for identifying a form of intelligence. He emphasizes that these criteria are not rigid requirements, but rather guidelines for evaluating potential intelligences.
Gardner’s key criteria include:
1) A unique core function or set of functions. To qualify as a form of intelligence, it must handle a task or tasks that are completely separate from those handled by other forms of intelligence. For instance, choosing the right words is a core function of linguistic intelligence—no other type of intelligence can help you write a poem or find the right words to describe an experience you’ve had.
2) The ability to be isolated. Since each intelligence is distinct, Gardner says that it should be possible for changes to the brain to affect one form of intelligence without impacting any others. For example, damage to certain areas of the brain can cause dyscalculia (difficulty understanding and processing numbers) without hindering other abilities. Another way to think about this criterion is that each type of intelligence must come from specific, identifiable parts of the brain.
3) Evolutionary and developmental history. Gardner says that all types of intelligence originate from a person’s biology and neurology. This has two significant implications: First, humans as a species have evolved to possess these intelligences, just as we’ve evolved to have thumbs. Second, on an individual level, the intelligences become more developed as a person’s brain develops. Therefore, it should be possible (at least in theory) to trace each intelligence from its evolutionary roots to its fully developed state in an adult human.
For example, leadership is one expression of interpersonal intelligence, and we can see hierarchical behavior (leaders and followers) in animals ranging from wolves to bees. Theoretically, scientists could find the first species to ever display leadership behavior, and follow the evolution of that behavior up until modern humans. Furthermore, child psychologists can chart how leadership skills develop in an individual, starting from how toddlers and young children interact with their peers while doing activities together. Therefore, it should be theoretically possible to create a timeline of interpersonal intelligence from its very beginnings in the distant past to its present expression in modern-day people.
4) The existence of prodigies or “geniuses.” For every type of intelligence, there will be a small number of people who are exceptionally intelligent in that way, while developing normally in all other ways. For example, someone who’s extremely good with numbers won’t necessarily be extremely good with words, and vice versa.
5) The tendency to be encoded in symbols. Gardner says that humans naturally develop symbol systems to record and share information, such as the way we encode linguistic information by developing letters and arranging them into words. It logically follows that most forms of intelligence will have specific sets of symbols associated with them.
Intelligences Are Abstract and Subjective
Gardner adds that identifying an intelligence is not a purely scientific process. This is because not all of his criteria have clear measurements and benchmarks—for instance, there’s no tool to scientifically measure musical ability, and no way to definitively say whether someone is a musical prodigy.
Because of the abstract nature of intelligences, identifying one always involves some degree of personal judgment. Gardner thus argues that it’s important for researchers to publicize their evidence and reasoning when identifying a form of intelligence. This allows other researchers to review their work and challenge their conclusions as needed.
Finally, Gardner cautions against treating intelligences as tangible, measurable entities. He reminds readers that “intelligences” are merely constructs; they’re concepts that help people discuss cognitive processes and abilities, but they don’t describe real, concrete things in nature.
How Brain Structure Supports Multiple Intelligence Theory
Now that we’ve discussed the abstract side of intelligences, let’s examine their physiological aspects. Gardner argues that the brain’s structure and functioning supports his concept of multiple, distinct intelligences.
At the microscopic level, the cerebral cortex—where conscious thought and reasoning occur—is organized into segments that each respond to specific stimuli. This means that, for instance, there are certain clusters of brain cells that process numbers (mathematical information), while different clusters of cells process words (linguistic information).
On a larger scale, different regions of the brain are associated with distinct cognitive functions: Scans have shown that different areas of the brain activate in response to, for instance, intellectual problems as opposed to emotional stimuli. This is also why damage to specific areas of the brain can negatively affect certain abilities such as math skills while leaving other skills intact.
To illustrate this principle with a metaphor, you could view intelligences as behaving like components inside a computer: The CPU reads and carries out instructions so the computer can function, while the GPU renders graphics so you can see what’s happening on your monitor. The CPU and GPU have distinct functions, but they come together with other components to create a working computer. In the same way, your intelligences come together with other mental abilities and processes to create a working mind.
The Conceptual Intelligences
So far we’ve discussed intelligences in general terms, but what specific types of intelligence did Gardner identify?
We’ll discuss three types of intelligence that help you learn and apply conceptual knowledge (as opposed to helping you interact with tangible objects or other people). These three conceptual intelligences are linguistic intelligence, logical-mathematical intelligence, and musical intelligence.
For each of these, we’ll explain what kind of information that intelligence deals with, then briefly discuss why it meets (or fails to meet) each of Gardner’s criteria for intelligences:
- Has a specific core function or functions
- Deals with information that is encoded in symbols
- Sometimes shows up as exceptional intelligence in certain people
- Develops throughout a person’s life
- Is associated with specific parts of the brain
Linguistic Intelligence
The first intelligence that Gardner discusses is linguistic intelligence. Its core function is enabling you to understand the meanings behind words and to use language to convey your own ideas. Linguistic information is encoded in letters and words, which can be either spoken or written.
Skilled writers epitomize this type of intelligence, and particularly impressive writers such as William Shakespeare can be considered linguistic geniuses. Their work doesn’t just involve picking words with the correct meanings—they must also keep a consistent tone and style within each piece, ensure that metaphors both make sense and evoke the intended feelings, and (ideally) write in a way that holds the reader’s attention without becoming boring or repetitive. All of these are challenging problems that require a high level of linguistic skill to solve.
Linguistic intelligence also has a clear pattern of development through a person’s early childhood, which fulfills another of Gardner’s criteria. He explains that linguistic intelligence starts developing in infancy: Language skills begin with unintelligible babbling, then generally progress to single words around age one, to simple phrases at age two or three, and then to complex sentences by four or five years old. Development slows significantly after age five, and often depends largely on how caregivers or teachers encourage and guide the child’s language skills.
Finally, brain structure and function play crucial roles in linguistic intelligence. Gardner says that language processing is typically localized in the left hemisphere (half) of the brain. He also notes that injuries to that area can result in various types of language impairment, which fulfills another of his criteria for intelligence. For instance, some head injuries affecting the left side of the brain cause aphasia, which is the inability to recall certain words or to use them correctly while speaking.
Logical-Mathematical Intelligence
The second intelligence Gardner discusses is logical-mathematical intelligence. Its core functions allow you to recognize patterns, follow lines of reasoning, and make connections between abstract concepts. This type of information is encoded in numbers, mathematical operations, logic symbols, and so on.
Mathematicians and scientists heavily rely on this type of intelligence in their work, albeit in different ways. Mathematicians are often driven by a desire to find patterns and create abstract systems using numbers; scientists, on the other hand, seek to understand physical reality through study and experimentation. Some such people—such as Sir Isaac Newton, Albert Einstein, and Stephen Hawking—are commonly considered geniuses.
Gardner says that, like linguistic intelligence, logical-mathematical intelligence has a clear path of development that begins in infancy.
At less than a year old, children start to understand simple cause-and-effect patterns and to make comparisons (such as recognizing that one object is larger than another). They begin learning to count between one and two years old, generally by counting physical items they can see and touch. By age six or seven, children can perform simple abstract reasoning and work with hypothetical scenarios—for instance, “If I have two apples, then add one more, how many apples do I have?”
Gardner admits that it’s difficult to say exactly which parts of the brain give rise to this intelligence. While certain brain areas, particularly in the left hemisphere, seem important for numerical and logical operations, logical-mathematical abilities may be distributed throughout the brain. This makes logical-mathematical abilities more vulnerable to general cognitive decline (that is, dementia), but more resilient in the face of localized brain damage.
Musical Intelligence
The next form of intelligence Gardner describes is musical intelligence. Its core functions enable you to recognize musical qualities such as pitch and rhythm. It also allows you to reproduce music you’ve heard (for example, by singing along to your favorite song) and create your own music—even something as simple as drumming your hands on a table is an expression of musical intelligence. This type of intelligence is encoded in musical symbols such as staffs, clefs, and notes.
Naturally, musicians make frequent use of musical intelligence to write and perform their songs. Exceptional musicians such as Ludwig von Beethoven and Freddie Mercury are often considered to be “musical geniuses.”
The development of musical intelligence follows a distinct pattern, beginning with infant babbling and singing. Children start producing distinct musical patterns and fragments of familiar songs as early as two years old. However, Gardner notes that musical intelligence often plateaus in early childhood unless caregivers encourage and guide its growth.
Finally, Gardner notes that musical ability is largely associated with parts of the right hemisphere of the brain. This is one of the most important points in favor of musical skill being its own intelligence, rather than an offshoot of linguistic intelligence—which is localized in the left hemisphere—or logical-mathematical intelligence, which is distributed across both hemispheres.
He adds that there have been cases of brain-damaged individuals who lose their musical skills, while their language and mathematical skills remain intact (or vice-versa). There are also “savants” who have extraordinary musical talent, despite being developmentally disabled in other ways. This reinforces the idea that musical intelligence is a distinct phenomenon, separate from all other forms of intelligence.
The Physical Intelligences
Physical intelligences allow you to interact with concrete objects and the world around you. The physical intelligences Gardner identifies are spatial intelligence and bodily-kinesthetic intelligence. We’ll explain what kind of information each one of those deals with, then discuss how it matches up with Gardner’s criteria for an intelligence.
Spatial Intelligence
The first of the physical intelligences is spatial intelligence. Its core functions allow you to recognize shapes and manipulate them in your mind (for instance, when you imagine rotating a couch to figure out if it will fit through a doorway), and to navigate your surroundings.
Unlike conceptual intelligences, spatial intelligence doesn’t have a specific language or set of symbols associated with it. However, any representation of shapes and forms—from a child’s drawing to a complex blueprint or schematic—could be considered a way of recording and sharing spatial information.
Gardner points to visual artists (painters, animators, and so on) as an example of people who largely rely on spatial intelligence for their work: In order to create a work of art, the artist must first be able to picture it in detail—all of the shapes and forms the piece will consist of, and how they’re arranged in relation to each other. The artist must then be able to reproduce that mental image using whatever medium they work with.
Furthermore, people who are exceptionally skilled in the visual arts—such as the Renaissance-era sculptor Michelangelo—are often called artistic geniuses. This highlights that such people have exceptionally high levels of spatial intelligence.
Gardner says that the development of spatial intelligence follows a distinct trajectory through childhood. Initially, infants explore their environment through simple actions such as crawling, observing, and touching objects. By age three or four, children develop the ability to form accurate mental images. After that, they can learn to manipulate those images mentally, without the need to physically move or change the objects. For example, a roughly five-year-old child playing with building blocks may be able to first picture what they want to build, then accurately reproduce that image using the actual blocks.
Finally, spatial intelligence is associated with specific areas of the brain, particularly the back regions of the right hemisphere. Researchers have found that a person’s spatial reasoning can be impaired by brain damage to those areas, while their other cognitive abilities remain intact. Likewise, people in cognitive decline often retain fundamental spatial skills—such as their ability to recognize objects and move through their environment—even as they lose other faculties.
Bodily-Kinesthetic Intelligence
Next, Gardner discusses bodily-kinesthetic intelligence. The core function of this intelligence is to control your body’s movements. This includes handling objects.
While this form of intelligence doesn’t seem intellectual, it actually involves sophisticated cognitive processes and problem-solving abilities. Even the simple act of picking up a spoon requires many calculations: How far does your hand need to move to reach the spoon? How will you position your fingers to hold it? How much pressure will you apply?
As with spatial intelligence, there is no particular set of symbols associated with bodily-kinesthetic information, but Gardner says that movements themselves often take the place of such symbols. For example, someone teaching a skill or technique will often demonstrate it so that the learner can copy their movements—therefore, those motions are the method by which that bodily-kinesethic information is shared.
Almost everyone relies on bodily-kinesthetic intelligence in their daily lives, but some people have exceptional control over their bodies, and Gardner argues that such people are bodily-kinesthetic geniuses. Examples include all-star athletes such as basketball player Kobe Bryant and world-class martial artists such as Bruce Lee.
Finally, Gardner explains that, while many parts of the brain and nervous system must coordinate to make your body move, certain areas such as the frontal lobe and the cerebellum play particularly important roles in bodily-kinesthetic abilities. Damage to those areas can lead to impairments in motor skills without impairing other cognitive functions. Apraxia (the inability to make certain movements) is one example of this kind of impairment. This supports the idea that bodily-kinesthetic intelligence is a distinct form of intelligence.
The Personal Intelligences
The last category is what Gardner calls the personal intelligences. These consist of intrapersonal intelligence (understanding yourself) and interpersonal intelligence (understanding others).
Unlike the other forms of intelligence, the personal intelligences develop simultaneously and greatly influence each other, making them nearly impossible to separate. So, we’ll discuss intrapersonal intelligence and interpersonal intelligence together.
Intrapersonal and Interpersonal Intelligences
Intrapersonal intelligence is your capacity to understand yourself, and to recognize and process your own feelings, motivations, strengths, and weaknesses. If you have high intrapersonal intelligence, you tend to be self-reflective, show strong metacognition (awareness of your own thought processes), and effectively manage your emotional states.
Interpersonal intelligence, on the other hand, is your ability to understand and interact effectively with others. This includes being able to recognize others’ moods, temperaments, motivations, and intentions, as well as knowing how to respond in various social situations.
Personal intelligences start developing in infancy through the bond between infant and caregiver. Gardner says that this early attachment provides the foundation for both self-awareness and awareness of others.
During the first years of life, children learn to recognize their own emotions and to differentiate between themselves and others. By two years old they have enough self-awareness to recognize themselves in the mirror. Between ages two and five they develop the ability to represent themselves and others through language and play—for instance, a child who says, “I’ll be Batman, and you’ll be the bad guy,” is showing awareness not only of themselves and their playmate, but of other (fictional) people as well. From there, specific intra- and interpersonal skills develop on a largely individual basis.
Finally, Gardner says that the personal intelligences are associated with the frontal lobes of the brain. Studies have shown that damage to these areas can severely impact someone’s personality and social behavior, but leave their other abilities intact.
Applying Multiple Intelligence Theory to Education
After discussing his theory about intelligence and the specific intelligences that he’s identified, Gardner explores some of the implications that his ideas could have for education. We’ll discuss how educators could make intelligence profiles for their students highlighting their strengths and weaknesses, and how they might use those profiles to guide their teaching practices.
Assessing Students’ Intelligences
Gardner encourages educators to consider how intelligent their students are in each specific way, rather than just how “smart” they are overall. He argues that education is more effective when tailored to individual strengths and weaknesses, and such profiles would help educators make personalized plans for their students.
Thus, he suggests that educators develop ways to assess their students’ individual profiles. Rather than giving every student a battery of formal assessments—which would be time-consuming and stressful—Gardner proposes letting children do what naturally interests them, and observing their behavior. While observing, educators should consider which specific intelligences each game or activity relies on, and look for signs of giftedness or developmental delay in regards to those intelligences. For example, a child who naturally takes charge among their friends by deciding what games to play could be showing unusually high interpersonal intelligence.
Teaching Based on Intelligence Profiles
Gardner then discusses how educators might use information about students’ intellectual profiles to design more effective instruction. He suggests educators should focus on either developing students’ strengths, addressing their weaknesses, or pursuing a balanced approach.
He adds that different instructional methods might be effective for students with different intellectual profiles even when teaching the same subject matter. For example, when learning computer programming, students with strong logical-mathematical intelligence might benefit from an approach that emphasizes how computers interpret and execute code—how they “think,” so to speak. On the other hand, students with strong linguistic intelligence would probably do better with an approach that emphasizes the ways in which programming languages are similar to spoken or written languages, and how writing a program is like writing a story or essay for the computer to read.
To conclude, Gardner says that as knowledge about human cognitive development continues to grow, educators must consider new information when designing study plans and interventions. A better understanding of human intelligence will help guide better teaching practices, leading to a more educated and less frustrated populace.
