What Is the Hard Problem? Why Consciousness Is Tricky

A man looking up with blackboard scribbles behind him illustrates the question, "What is the hard problem of consciousness?"

What is the hard problem of consciousness? What can modern science tell us about how our subjective experiences arise from objective reality? In The Origin of Consciousness in the Breakdown of the Bicameral Mind, Julian Jaynes explores the complex nature of consciousness beyond simple sensory awareness. He defines consciousness, but his theory (and everyone else’s) can’t explain what gives rise to the subjective experience of consciousness. Read on to explore theories about what consciousness is, how it evolved, and why philosophers call it “the hard problem.”

3 Benefits of Music on the Brain, Neuroscientist Explains

A baby dancing to music, displaying the benefits of music on the brain

What role does music play in childhood development? How can playing music improve your mental processing? There are many benefits of music on the brain, and neuroscientist Daniel J. Levitin explains them in his book I Heard There Was a Secret Chord. From releasing oxytocin to generating empathy, music can have profound impacts on humans. Here’s a look at the top three benefits of music.

Bicameral Mentality: How Pre-Conscious Humans Thought & Acted

Bicameral Mentality: How Pre-Conscious Humans Thought & Acted

What exactly went on in the minds of our ancestors before modern consciousness emerged? How did ancient humans make decisions without the self-awareness we take for granted today? In The Origin of Consciousness in the Breakdown of the Bicameral Mind, Julian Jaynes presents a theory about human cognition before consciousness. He proposes that our ancestors operated with a bicameral mentality, where decisions came as auditory hallucinations. Keep reading to discover how Jaynes believes this ancient mental organization worked.

When Did Humans Develop Consciousness? (Jaynes)

A hand painting on a cave wall, representing when humans developed consciousness

When did humans develop consciousness? How did the development of writing fundamentally change the way our ancestors thought and made decisions? Julian Jaynes proposes that early humans relied on auditory hallucinations—voices they attributed to gods—rather than self-reflection for guidance. He believes that humans developed consciousness gradually as societies became more complex. Keep reading to explore Jaynes’s theory about how humans developed consciousness as we experience it today.

How Did Humans Develop Consciousness? (Jaynes)

Two prehistoric men in silhouette having a conversation illustrates the question, "How did humans develop consciousness?"

How did humans develop consciousness? When did humans first become aware of their internal lives? How did language shape our ability to understand ourselves and others? In The Origin of Consciousness in the Breakdown of the Bicameral Mind, Julian Jaynes proposes that consciousness emerged through cultural evolution rather than biological changes. He argues that the shift occurred as early humans developed more complex language and metaphorical thinking. Continue reading to learn about the developments that, according to Jaynes, transformed humans into the self-aware beings we are today.

Julian Jaynes’s Bicameral Mind Theory: Principles & Legacy

Julian Jaynes’s Bicameral Mind Theory: Principles & Legacy

What did people’s minds feel like before the development of human consciousness as we know it? How did our ancestors interpret the thoughts in their heads? Julian Jaynes’s bicameral mind theory suggests that consciousness as we know it emerged only around 3,000 years ago, replacing an earlier mental structure. Jaynes proposes that humans once possessed a “bicameral mind,” where one part of the mind seemed to speak while the other listened and obeyed. Keep reading to learn the core principles of this theory and the questions it might answer.

What Is the Nature of Intelligence? Howard Gardner Explains

An artistic depiction of the human brain illustrates the question, "What is the nature of intelligence?"

What is the nature of intelligence? Is intelligence an objective thing, or is there some subjectivity to it? Howard Gardner explores this fascinating topic in his book Frames of Mind, where he presents criteria for identifying various forms of intelligence. He argues that the nature of intelligence is far more complex than traditional IQ tests suggest. Keep reading to discover how Gardner’s groundbreaking ideas about the nature of intelligence might change your understanding of human capability.

What Is Howard Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligences?

Three image panels (two men and one woman) depicts the question "What is Howard Gardner's theory of multiple intelligences?"

What is Howard Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences? Are there truly different types of intelligence beyond a single IQ score? Is there a scientific basis for the theory? Howard Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences challenges the traditional view that intelligence is a single trait. In his book Frames of Mind, Gardner proposes that humans possess several distinct intelligences, each handling different kinds of information and problem-solving abilities. Read on to understand Gardner’s theory and consider how your brain might be wired for unique forms of brilliance that standard IQ tests never measure.

The 3 Conceptual Intelligences: Howard Gardner Explains

A drawing of a person writing in a book or journal with concepts depicted as objects illustrates conceptual intelligence

How does your brain process language, numbers, and music? What makes some people naturally gifted in writing, mathematics, or musical composition? In his book Frames of Mind, Howard Gardner identifies three distinct conceptual intelligences that shape how we learn and interact with abstract ideas. Linguistic, logical-mathematical, and musical intelligences each follow unique developmental patterns and are associated with different areas of the brain. Read more to explore these fascinating mental capabilities and discover how they manifest in both everyday skills and extraordinary genius.