Book SummaryThe Paradox of Choice, by Barry Schwartz

1-Page Summary1-Page Book Summary of The Paradox of Choice

In The Paradox of Choice, Barry Schwartz contends that the vast array of choices presented to us leaves us stressed and indecisive. To lift this burden, Schwartz, a professor of social theory and social action, recommends we learn how to better navigate our choices, from groceries to health insurance.

Schwartz’s work combines psychology and economics. He wrote The Paradox of Choice based on his research and personal experiences with the negative consequences of expanded choice.

(Shortform note: Schwartz’s ideas have become popularized, and the concept of the “paradox of choice” has been written about frequently since the book’s publication. However, it has also attracted criticism: Writers for outlets such as The Atlantic and the Financial Times questioned the premise of Schwartz’s book, arguing that the idea that expanded choice has negative effects is not grounded in sufficient evidence.)

In this guide, we’ll examine the types of choices we face, the challenges of making choices, how excessive choices make these challenges more difficult, and how to live with expanded choice. We’ll also add scientific and cultural context to Schwartz’s ideas, plus updates on how choice has grown since the book’s publication.

Three Categories of Choice

The many different decisions just about everyone has to make fall into three broad categories—consumer choices, complex choices, and personal life choices.

Schwartz explains how choices in each of these categories have expanded and become more complex, and how this expansion impacts our lives.

Consumer Choices

Consumer choices are choices about purchases of consumer or tangible goods, from potato chips to computers.

According to Schwartz, consumer choices have expanded to the point that seemingly simple decisions require a lot of unnecessary thought and energy—if there are 30 brands of cookies to choose from at a supermarket, for instance, you must give more attention to deciding which cookie to buy.

One way to mitigate this stress in consumer choices is to identify the decisions that are worth your time and energy. To do this, Schwartz distinguishes between “durable” and “nondurable” consumer goods:Durable goods are those that last a long time, like electronics or appliances, and nondurable goods are used quickly, like groceries.

People typically spend more money, time, and energy on choosing durable goods than nondurable ones. Because you’ll use these goods for a long time, the lengthier decision-making process is worth the effort. In contrast, by spending too much time making choices among nondurable goods, you'd use up energy you should spend on choosing durable goods.

(Shortform note: All durable and nondurable goods are tangible, meaning they’re physical objects you can use. In contrast, services, such as restaurant service or exercise classes, are intangible. Broader life choices, like marriage or religion, can’t accurately be described as either goods or services.)

Complex Choices

Complex choices involve more complicated decisions about intangibles that have a greater impact on our lives than products.

Common areas of complex choice include utilities, insurance, education, retirement, medical care, and jobs. Schwartz writes that choices have expanded in all of these areas. For example, there are numerous electricity plans to choose from without many distinct differences, hundreds of college majors, and many private and government-subsidized insurance plans. These choices are all consequential and take time to consider, and Schwartz argues that the proliferation of options in each of them makes it harder to reach a satisfactory and well-informed decision.

(Shortform note: While utilities and insurance are important choices that take time and energy to consider, other complex choices like education and retirement are generally of greater importance. People with the financial means have the opportunity to change their utilities and insurance plans if they are unsatisfied, but education and retirement choices have longer-lasting consequences that may significantly affect the life of the chooser.)

Personal Life Choices

In contrast to consumer and complex choices, personal life choices are broad, long-term choices that don’t explicitly involve purchases, but instead incorporate how we want to experience our lives and present ourselves to the world. These typically involve choices surrounding our personal relationships and our identities (religious, social, and so on).

Schwartz explains that aspects of our personal lives where choices have expanded include relationships, religion, and identity. People now have greater choice over their romantic relationships: Strict social norms previously led many people to marry, buy property, and have children on an expected timeline—but now, most people have the freedom to create romantic relationships that work best for them. Freedom to choose which religion to practice, or not to practice religion at all, has grown more common and socially accepted. Many people are now more free to express their identities as they want to (for example, someone can engage with their queer identity with an L.G.B.T.Q. social group, and also engage with their Jewish identity when attending services at their synagogue).

Since this book’s publication, our choices in these arenas have only grown. In romance, dating apps and websites have expanded our relationship options, although some of these services are more useful than others. An article in Nautilus argues that websites that curate your matches to a greater extent, such as eHarmony, [are more effective because they force you to look closely at a...

The Paradox of Choice Summary Shortform Introduction

The Paradox of Choice, by psychology and economics researcher Barry Schwartz, argues that unrestrained choice in market democracies creates problems. Since the book's publication in 2004, it’s generated ongoing debate.

Schwartz acknowledges that the freedom to choose is essential to our autonomy. However, he contends that the vast array of choices we have in contemporary Western societies leaves us stressed and indecisive. To lift this burden, Schwartz recommends we learn how to better navigate the choices we’re presented with, from groceries to health insurance.

About the Author

Schwartz is a professor of social theory and social action at Swarthmore College. His work combines psychology and economics and focuses on the problem of choice.

In addition to The Paradox of Choice, he has published seven other books and numerous articles for journals, magazines, and newspapers. Popular books by Schwartz include Why We Work, based on his TED Talk of the same name, which analyzes our motivations for working; and *[Practical...

The Paradox of Choice Summary Introduction: Overwhelmed With Choices

Freedom of choice is integral to living a fulfilling life. Schwartz explains that individual autonomy and satisfaction increase as choice increases, and he acknowledges that living a life with no choice at all causes unhappiness.

But while Schwartz stresses the overall importance of freedom of choice, he believes that too many choices can actually hinder autonomy. In market democracies, we’re presented with boundless choices on a daily basis, from groceries to health insurance plans. Schwartz argues that the number of choices we face often leaves us stressed and indecisive. At a certain point, Schwartz posits, expanded choices do not bring us further happiness and independence, but instead overload us with inconsequential decisions to make.

To lift this burden, **Schwartz recommends we learn how to...

The Paradox of Choice Summary Part 1 | Chapters 1-2: Three Categories of Choice

Schwartz writes that the choices we face in our lives have increased over time, and they continue to increase. They’ve also become more complex, and we often have little guidance or knowledge of how to make smart choices.

Schwartz attributes the expansion of choice to: 1) the incentives of market-based economies to provide as many options as possible for consumers, and 2) in the United States specifically, the nation’s core values of independence and freedom.

Schwartz explores and defines the major categories of choices—consumer choices, complex choices, and personal life choices—and the consequences of expanded choice in each of them:

• Consumer choices are choices about consumer or tangible goods, from potato chips to computers.
• Complex choices involve more complicated decisions about intangibles that have a greater impact on our lives than products. Examples are choosing which college to attend, which health insurance plan to choose, or which cell phone plan to purchase.
• Personal life choices are broad, long-term choices that don’t explicitly involve purchases, but instead incorporate how we want to experience our lives and present ourselves to the...

Shortform Exercise: How Has Expanded Choice Affected Your Decisions?

Schwartz argues that the overwhelming number of minor choices we make every day causes unnecessary stress. Reflect on how you’ve handled a situation where you had many options to choose from.

Describe a recent instance where you had to make a consumer choice and had numerous options available to you. What were some of these options?

The Paradox of Choice Summary Part 2: Challenging Choices | Chapter 3: How and Why We Choose

In Part 1, Schwartz describes the proliferation of choice in market democracies and the categories of choices we face. Part 2 will examine how we make decisions, common mistakes we make, and how expanded choice hinders our decision-making and personal satisfaction.

Schwartz explains that making choices is always challenging—having a huge number of options just exacerbates the difficulty. Decisions are challenging, in part, because each decision has many layers. For example, think about choosing a city to live in. How much does it cost to live there? What are work opportunities like? Do you have friends or loved ones who live there, or would you have to spend a lot of time meeting new people? These are just a few questions you’d need to consider. A single large decision, then, can consist of many different small decisions to weigh against each other.

In addition to confronting many layers, we also contend with psychological biases that often lead us to poor decisions. To provide a context for understanding how we go wrong, Schwartz first describes what the ideal decision-making process looks like.

Steps to a Good Decision

Schwartz lays out several steps that go...

Shortform Exercise: When Do You Guess vs. Deliberate?

Decisions can be overwhelming and stressful, so it can be tempting to be a guesser—that is, to choose indiscriminately.

Describe a time when you chose an option by guessing, instead of thinking about your alternatives. Why did you take this approach?

The Paradox of Choice Summary Chapter 4: Are You a Maximizer or a Satisficer?

In the previous chapter, Schwartz described two kinds of choosers: deliberators, who think about their decisions, and guessers, who do not.

In this chapter, Schwartz distinguishes between two kinds of deliberators. Both types of deliberators carefully consider their decisions, but in different ways:

1. Maximizers accept only the best possible option.
2. Satisficers accept an option that meets their standards.

Schwartz explores the differences between maximizing and satisficing, the pitfalls of being a maximizer, and why people maximize in the first place.

The Theory Behind Satisficing

The terms “maximizing” and “satisficing” were coined in 1956 by economist and psychologist Herbert A. Simon in the article “Rational Choice and the Structure of the Environment.”

While the predominant economic theory at the time was that humans are rational actors who will gravitate toward the best possible choice, Simon argued that people are generally incapable of selecting the single best option from a wide range, but are able to choose an acceptable option that will...

Shortform Exercise: Do You Maximize or Satisfice?

We all maximize and satisfice at different times, but most of us tend to do one more than the other.

Which decision-making strategy do you use more often? Why do you think this strategy is effective?

The Paradox of Choice Summary Chapter 5: How Choice Affects Happiness

Schwartz previously discussed the contradictions of choice and happiness: Although freedom of choice is essential to autonomy and satisfaction with your life, too much choice can create stress and dissatisfaction.

In this chapter, Schwartz first acknowledges the benefits of freedom of choice. Then he explores how voluntarily limiting our freedom to choose in some cases can make us happier.

Why We Need Choice

Schwartz argues that freedom of choice is valuable because it provides basic autonomy, the material ability to live your life as you see fit, and the ability to present yourself to the world however you want.

Schwartz cites 18th century economist Adam Smith, who posited that freedom of choice allows the market to respond to people’s desires by providing things they want or need, and people then have the freedom to choose the goods that best fit their lifestyle. Schwartz also emphasizes that freedom of choice allows people to express who they are. The goods and experiences we choose shape how we show ourselves to the world. This is a form of autonomy that helps us feel satisfied in our lives.

(Shortform note: [There is scientific evidence for autonomy’s...

Shortform Exercise: How Do You Use Second-Order Decisions?

Second-order decisions, those you can automate, can help you reduce the number of choices you need to make. You likely use some second-order decisions already.

Consider the four categories of second-order decisions: rules, presumptions, standards, and routines. Pick one that you already use. How do you incorporate it into your life?

The Paradox of Choice Summary Part 3: Pitfalls of Too Much Choice | Chapter 6: Pitfall #1—Missed Opportunities

In Part 2, Schwartz explained our decision-making processes and how expanded choice exacerbates the difficulties of making choices. Next, he discusses four pitfalls of expanded choice and how we can move past them: missed opportunities, regret, disappointment, and over-reliance on comparison.

When discussing the opportunities we miss, or think we miss, when making a decision, Schwartz uses the term opportunity costs. Opportunity costs are the opportunities we give up when we come to a firm decision. Schwartz defines opportunity costs, analyzes their effects on decisions, and discusses how to effectively incorporate opportunity costs into our decision-making process.

Defining Opportunity Costs

Schwartz writes that, when making decisions, we consider our options in relation to one another. No option exists in isolation. This is where opportunity costs come into play: When making an important choice, you need to consider the benefits of your alternatives to obtain a full, accurate picture of your decision. Many people don’t consider opportunity costs, instead focusing on the individual choice they plan to make. By not fully considering their decision, they...

Shortform Exercise: How Do You Weigh Opportunity Costs?

Opportunity costs are important to consider when making complex decisions, but sometimes considering them can over-complicate your decision-making.

Describe a recent decision that was difficult because of the opportunity costs or trade-offs. What were they?

The Paradox of Choice Summary Chapter 7: Pitfall #2—Regret

In the last chapter, Schwartz discussed how the fear of missed opportunities makes decisions challenging. In this chapter, he examines another pitfall of too much choice: regret. He explains what causes regret, the tendency to imagine scenarios that make us regretful, the negative effects of regret, how expanded choice makes regret worse, and how we can use regret in a healthy way.

Why We Regret

Schwartz describes three factors that influence how we experience regret:

1. Omission bias: When reflecting on the recent past, we regret choices we made instead of those we failed to make. The opposite is also true—when reflecting on the distant past, we tend to regret choices we failed to make instead of those we made.

(Shortform note: While Schwartz focuses on the individual effects of cognitive biases like omission bias, your decisions can have broader effects, as well. For instance, countries where you have to opt out of being an organ donor have high rates of organ donation: Since you have to actively decide against being an organ donor, opting out feels like doing harm, which you want to avoid. The United...

Shortform Exercise: How Do You Handle Regret?

Everyone occasionally regrets a choice they’ve made. In this exercise, consider how regret has played into your decision-making.

Think of a time when you regretted a decision. What made you regret this choice?

The Paradox of Choice Summary Chapter 8: Pitfall #3—Disappointment

In the past two chapters, Schwartz analyzed what happens when we feel we missed out on alternative choices. In this chapter, he explains why we may be disappointed even with positive choices we’ve made, and how we can move past our disappointment. He explores:

• How adaptation makes us feel disappointed with choices we were initially satisfied with
• Why we don’t anticipate disappointment
• How expanded choice aggravates disappointment
• What we can do to lessen the effects of disappointment

What Is Hedonic Adaptation?

Schwartz asserts that even when we make good choices, we often end up disappointed in the long run because of adaptation: When we get used to things, they lose their novelty and we begin to take them for granted.

Adapting to the things that give us pleasure is called hedonic adaptation. Hedonic adaptation can occur as a natural response over time, or in response to a changed reference point. For instance, if you eat a slice of the best chocolate cake you’ve ever had, other chocolate cakes will start to pale in comparison. Because you’ve had a highly pleasurable experience (your new reference point), you’ve unconsciously set your...

Shortform Exercise: What Have You Adapted To?

You’ve probably had a pleasurable experience that’s eventually worn off. Think about how you respond when this occurs.

Reflect on an exciting experience you had, or a purchase you made. When did the excitement begin to wear off? How did you react?

The Paradox of Choice Summary Chapter 9: Pitfall #4—Comparison

Schwartz posits that one reason we may feel regret or disappointment in our choices is that we compare them with others’ choices to gauge whether we’re choosing well. Too much comparison, especially social comparison, can lead us to bad judgment in our decision-making.

In this chapter, Schwartz lists common comparisons we make, discusses the effect of high expectations on our comparative decision-making, and describes why social comparison can be one of the most damaging kinds of comparison.

Common Comparisons

Schwartz identifies four common types of comparisons we make in order to judge our decisions:

1. We compare the results of our choices against our hoped-for outcomes.
2. We compare the results against our expected outcomes.
3. We compare the results against our recent experiences.
4. We compare the results against others’ experiences.

These comparisons can make our choice seem better or worse, depending on what we’re comparing it to. When our choice seems worse in comparison, we sense gaps between what we wanted and our outcome.

Schwartz cites social scientist Alex Michalos, who identified three types of gaps:

1. The gap between what we...

Shortform Exercise: How Does Social Comparison Affect Your Choices?

Social comparison affects everyone. While we can’t escape it, we can understand and change how it impacts our lives.

Think of a recent occasion when you compared yourself to someone you know. Was it an upward comparison (someone you think is better off) or a downward comparison (someone you think is worse off)? How did this comparison make you feel?

The Paradox of Choice Summary Chapter 10: Choice and Depression

In this chapter, Schwartz examines the negative psychological consequences of choice in more detail. He argues that expanded choice is a factor in rising rates of depression, and that depression can be particularly likely for maximizers.

Schwartz discusses the effects of optimism and pessimism on choices, the influence of expanded choice and an individualistic culture on depression, and a possible link between depression and maximizing tendencies.

The Effects of Optimism and Pessimism

In his earlier discussion of learned helplessness, Schwartz argued that a loss of control causes negative psychological consequences, such as an inability to choose. He expands on this point, adding that our subjective responses to loss of control influence how we fare psychologically.

While a loss of control alone may not cause depression, it can spur thought patterns that do. Schwartz identifies three binaries that determine how we respond to failures and losses of control:

• Global vs. specific: Imagine you’re a college student who failed an exam. A global response would be, “I’m terrible at exams, so of course I didn’t pass,” while a specific response would be, “This...

Shortform Exercise: How Do You Respond to Flawed Choices?

As Schwartz explains, our outlook when our choices go wrong can affect our emotional life.

Describe a recent choice that failed—maybe an expensive purchase didn’t live up to expectations, a trip that went poorly, or a miscommunication with a friend. How did you feel (as though the failure reflected your inadequacy, or was an explainable one-time incident) and why?

The Paradox of Choice Summary Part 4 | Chapter 11: How to Cope With Expanded Choice

In this final chapter, Schwartz lays out a series of recommendations for effectively dealing with expanded choice in our daily lives. Each set of recommendations references an area of concern discussed in the book.

1. Be Selective in Your Choices

Schwartz’s first recommendation is to be selective when making choices.

When making decisions, he says the subjective result—how a decision feels to you—is more important than the objective result. There’s no need to choose from unlimited options because there’s no point in searching for the “best” option; doing so actually will make you feel worse. Because of this, reducing your options can help you to make decisions that feel better.

Schwartz recommends taking these steps toward reducing your choices:

1. Review a few recent decisions.
2. Consider the time and effort you put into these decisions. Did they cause you stress?
3. Did you ultimately benefit from this decision-making process, or could you have made an equal or better decision with less deliberation?

By taking these steps, Schwartz says you’ll get a better sense of which decisions are necessary to you, how many options you need to consider, and how much...

Shortform Exercise: How Will You Deal With Expanded Choice?

Schwartz has detailed the difficulties that expanded choice causes, and he has listed strategies for combating it. It’s likely that one or more of them will be relevant to you.

Which of Schwartz’s strategies (recapped in Part 4) for reducing the stresses of too much choice seems most helpful to you and why?