Book SummaryThe Federalist Papers, by Alexander Hamilton

1-Page Summary1-Page Book Summary of The Federalist Papers

The purpose of The Federalist Papers was to make the general case for a stronger national government and urge the ratification of the Constitution drafted during the Constitutional Convention held at Philadelphia in 1787. The 85 essays that comprise The Federalist Papers were published in New York City newspapers in a piecemeal fashion between October 1787 and April 1788, while the ratification debate over the new Constitution was taking place in the 13 states. They were written with the specific purpose of building public support for the state of New York to ratify the plan of government.

(Shortform note: Historians are unclear as to what impact The Federalist Papers had on the ratification of the Constitution. New York’s constitutional convention did vote to ratify, but it was the 11th state to do so—the Constitution had only needed the approval of nine states to become law, thus making New York’s vote largely symbolic. Moreover, New York’s convention only approved the Constitution by a razor-thin 30-27 margin, indicating that The Federalist Papers failed to significantly move public opinion at the time, even in the state where they were most heavily published. Outside of New York, they were hardly published at all, further calling into question their effect. Nevertheless, they stand as an important analysis of the merits of the Constitution and are widely regarded as essential reading for those interested in the history of American governance.)

We’ll take a thematic approach to The Federalist Papers, exploring:

• Why the preservation of the American Union was so vitally important for the liberty, prosperity, and security of the states within it—and for the people themselves;
• How the integrity of the Union was threatened by the highly decentralized and ineffective Articles of Confederation;
• The general principles of the new Constitution drafted at Philadelphia, why it promised to be such a vast improvement over the Articles of Confederation, and how its reallocation of power between the federal government and the states would boost the prosperity, liberty, and safety of both;
• The structure of the new Constitution, with particular emphasis on the separation of powers between the executive, legislative, and judicial branches of government and how the new framework established a careful system of checks and balances between these branches; and
• The objections raised against the Constitution by critics and opponents, including its shift of power toward the federal government and away from the states, its powers of taxation, and its lack of a Bill of Rights.

The Case for the Union

The ratification of the Constitution was essential to the preservation of the Union. This was important, because the prosperity and freedom of the American people depended upon the continuance of the Union. The country had always been linked by a generally shared political and cultural connection to a common British heritage, similar political institutions between the colonies, and a high degree of economic interdependence (aided by North America’s navigable rivers, which boosted commerce).

Unfortunately, the Articles of Confederation, the plan of government in place at the time of the ratification debate, had proven utterly disastrous for the Union. The Articles of Confederation created a highly decentralized structure and weak central government that rendered the nation powerless to act in the face of both internal and external threats. Unless they were scrapped entirely, the Union threatened to break apart.

If the Union dissolved, it would be replaced by petty, rival confederacies, each vying against one another for the vast resources of the North American continent. Inevitably, this would lead to a state of permanent warfare—which, in turn, would lead to the creation of permanent standing armies in each state, something that Americans feared would be destructive of the liberties they held so dear. Dissolution, in short, would represent the death of the young nation and the failure of the republican experiment. To forestall this possibility, the only option was to ratify the Constitution and create a stronger, more durable Union.

National Security and the Prevention of War

A Union, bound together by a strong national government, would be far less likely to start external wars with its neighbors than would a series of small states or confederations of states. This was because smaller confederations would each be pursuing their own interests and independent policies. Unconstrained by the steadying hand of a unifying federal government, they would be free to act aggressively toward other nations, provoking more wars.

The danger went the other way as well—foreign powers would be more easily able to exploit weak confederations that were not supported by a strong federal government. Such confederations would lack the financial resources to levy armies and navies to prevent or turn back the aggressive actions of other countries. Moreover, states or confederations would have little reason to aid their neighbors in a war against a foreign power, because they would barely be part of the same political nation. Thus, unity was crucial to national defense, prosperity, and the protection of liberty.

Against Factions

A large and strong Union, comprising all the states, was the best remedy against the dangers of factionalism. A faction is any group of citizens, whether they constitute a majority or a minority, who seek to advance their interests and passions without regard to the rights and interests of others.

In a republic, decisions are made by representatives meeting in a designated capital, not by the people themselves in person. Therefore, popular passions are filtered through and tempered by more sober-minded representatives, making it harder for any single faction to achieve dominant status.

A large and populous...

The Federalist Papers Summary Shortform Introduction:

The purpose of The Federalist Papers was to make the general case for a stronger national government and urge the ratification of the Constitution drafted during the Constitutional Convention held at Philadelphia in 1787. The 85 essays that comprise The Federalist Papers were published in New York City newspapers in a piecemeal fashion between October 1787 and April 1788, while the ratification debate over the new Constitution was taking place in the 13 states.

(Shortform note: Historians are unclear as to what impact The Federalist Papers had on the ratification of the Constitution. New York’s constitutional convention did vote to ratify, but it was the 11th state to do so—the Constitution had only needed nine states to ratify it for it to become law, thus making New York’s vote largely symbolic. Moreover, New York’s convention only approved the Constitution by a razor-thin 30-27 margin, indicating that The Federalist Papers failed to significantly move public opinion, even in the state where they were most heavily published. Outside of New York, they were hardly published at all, further calling into question their effect.

Nevertheless, they stand as an...

The Federalist Papers Summary Chapter 1: The Case for the Union (Essays 1-14)

The adoption of the proposed Constitution was necessary for the preservation of the Union and the safeguarding of the liberties won during the Revolutionary War. Indeed, the successful ratification of the Constitution was a great moral and philosophical test for the young nation. Crucial questions hung in the balance. Were human beings capable of designing a government that properly protected liberties and promoted national welfare? Or were they destined to devolve into despotism and disunion?

While the opponents of the Constitution may have been motivated by genuine conviction, they were wrong to fear that the strong central government it sought to establish would, by definition, infringe upon their liberties. Instead, historical experience had shown that it was the lack of a strong government that posed the greatest threat to human freedom.

In this section, we will explore why the preservation of the Union was so important—and why the Constitution was the best way to maintain it.

The Necessity of the Union

The prosperity and freedom of the American people depended upon the continuance of the Union. Surprisingly, however, many politicians were...

The Federalist Papers Summary Chapter 2: The Failures of the Articles of Confederation (Essays 15-22)

In the last chapter, we made the case for the preservation of the Union, illustrating why it was crucial for the security, liberty, and prosperity of the American people.

In this chapter, we will analyze why maintaining the Articles of Confederation was totally at odds with the goal of preserving that Union. To do this, we will need to explore the specific weaknesses of the Articles and why Publius believed it was necessary to scrap them entirely and replace them with the new United States Constitution.

The General Weakness of Confederacies

A confederacy is an association of independent states or political communities. They are an inherently unstable and weak form of government. Under a confederacy, the overarching state tends to lack the proper authority to perform important central functions like raising an army, administering justice, collecting revenue, or regulating coinage, because its constituent members are too powerful and can block any initiative.

The weak central government is only held together because the constituent states are also too weak to exist on their own as independent nations. This leaves the entire confederacy vulnerable to civil war and...

Shortform Exercise: Understand Federalism

Think about the proper balance between state and federal power.

What did The Federalist Papers identify as the fundamental weakness of the Articles of Confederation?

The Federalist Papers Summary Chapter 3: Powers of the New Government (Essays 23-36)

Having established the failures of the old system of government, we’ll use this chapter to outline the principles of the new Constitution that had been drafted at Philadelphia in 1787. In particular, we’ll analyze the specific purposes the new government was designed to achieve with regard to the core functions of national administration:

• National defense
• Taxation
• Regulating foreign commerce and making treaties
• Overseeing interstate commerce

A core principle held by the framers of the new Constitution was that it wasn’t enough to merely grant powers to the federal government in the abstract; the Articles of Confederation had done that, to no effect. Rather, the new government needed to have the authority to make laws and enforce provisions that would enable it to effectively exert those powers. Without this, the Constitution would be worthless.

If the government was to be tasked with defending the nation and securing peace, it needed the power to raise an army; if it was to finance the public debt and secure public credit, it needed to have the requisite powers of taxation to do so. We will explore these and other powers of the new government in...

The Federalist Papers Summary Chapter 4: General Principles of the New Constitution (Essays 37-46)

Given the obvious failures of the Articles of Confederation, there was a clear need for reform. But no mere revision would suit the needs of the moment. For, as we’ve seen, the defects of the Articles had afflicted all confederate governments going back to the days of ancient Greece. They were beyond salvation because the entire system of government they created was inherently unworkable; they needed to be discarded and replaced wholesale.

The framers at the Philadelphia Convention had to juggle many competing interests as they set about their historic task, such as:

• Striking the right balance between an energetic and dynamic government and one that still represented the popular will; and
• Apportioning power between the large states and the small states

This chapter will examine the structure and principles of the new Constitution and make the case for why the new framework adopted at Philadelphia was the right one for the young republic.

The Necessity of the New Constitution

As we’ve seen, the proposed Constitution was a controversial issue at the time of The Federalist Papers. Opponents raised various objections against it, although many of these...

The Federalist Papers Summary Chapter 5 Part 1: Structure of the New Constitution (Essays 47-66)

So far, we’ve outlined general principles of the new Constitution and made the case for why it was such an improvement over the ineffective Articles of Confederation. We’ve also discussed the sharing of powers between the federal government and the states.

Now, we’re going to pivot our analysis to the structure of the federal government itself. In this chapter, we’ll explore:

• How the Constitution separates power within the federal government between the executive, legislative, and judicial branches;
• How the system of checks and balances was designed to keep any of the branches from growing too powerful at the expense of the other branches; and
• The specific powers and functions of each of the branches and their constituent parts, examining how they’re elected and what their responsibilities are.

Separation of Powers

All constitutional forms of government have three branches:

• The legislative branch, which writes the laws;
• The executive branch, which enforces the laws; and
• The judicial branch, which interprets the laws.

A basic principle of republican government, going back to the writings of the French political philosopher Montesquieu,...

Shortform Exercise: Explore Separation of Powers

Explore why the separation of powers was so important.

What were the dangers of having the executive, legislative, and judicial authorities intermingled?

The Federalist Papers Summary Chapter 5 Part 2: Structure of the New Constitution (Essays 67-85)

In this chapter, we’ll continue our analysis of the structure of the new federal government. In particular, we’ll outline the main functions and responsibilities of the presidency and examine the role of the federal judiciary in the new constitutional system. We’ll also look at the important issue of why the original draft of the Constitution contained no bill of rights—and what its supporters and detractors thought about this omission.

The Presidency

The presidency, the chief executive of the federal government, was perhaps the most controversial and hotly contested feature of the Constitution. The president would have the power to:

• Veto bills passed by both houses of Congress, thus serving as an important check on legislative power;
• Propose legislation;
• Negotiate treaties;
• Nominate executive officials and federal judges;
• Make temporary appointments when Congress was not in session;
• Adjourn Congress when it could not agree on a time of adjournment;
• Issue pardons, except in cases of impeachment; and
• Direct and oversee the armed forces as commander-in-chief

Anti-Federalist critics argued that these powers rendered the office tantamount...

The Federalist Papers Summary Conclusion

In short, The Federalist Papers outline a plan of government that promised to be far superior to the Articles of Confederation. The new Constitution aimed to create a stronger bond between the states, lay the foundation for national prosperity, establish a strong national defense, create a more efficient and energetic national administration, and safeguard the liberties of the states and the people.

The plan that...

Shortform Exercise: Understand The Federalist Papers

Unpack your main takeaways from The Federalist Papers.

Why were Americans in the late 18th century so apprehensive about a strong central government?