Book SummaryThe Fall of the Ottomans, by Eugene Rogan

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The Ottoman Empire's involvement and combat actions during the First World War

The Allied forces initiated their attack on the outlying regions of the Ottoman Empire.

At the onset of hostilities, the territories under Ottoman rule were rapidly overtaken by the Allied powers.

At the beginning of World War I, the Allied forces demonstrated their dominance, particularly in maritime strength, in the initial clashes occurring at the borders of Ottoman lands. The Ottoman Empire's vulnerability was heightened by its expansive frontiers and shorelines that encompassed the Black Sea, Persian Gulf, Red Sea, and Mediterranean, making it susceptible to the powerful maritime forces of the Entente. Hostilities commenced prior to the issuance of any formal declarations of war. On November 1, 1914, a detachment of the British naval forces initiated a strike on an Ottoman stronghold at the entrance to the Gulf of Aqaba, which was defended by a garrison of one hundred troops. In less than two days, the naval forces of Britain and France, positioned close to the Dardanelles, initiated a powerful attack on the outer defenses of the strait, inflicting significant damage on the Seddülbahir Fort through a short yet fierce bombardment that persisted for a mere twenty minutes. The initial assault on the Ottoman Empire's coastal defenses by the Allied forces was unexpectedly uncomplicated due to their antiquated state.

The Ottoman troops offered minimal opposition to the first naval attacks initiated by the Allied forces. The defensive structures of the time were outdated and inadequate, leaving their coastal cities and key sites exposed to assaults. The swift advance of the Allied troops, achieving their objectives with minimal losses, revealed an arrogance among British and French military planners, who, swayed by the enduring perception that the Ottomans were no longer a significant power in Europe, underestimated the resolve of their adversaries. Throughout the conflict, the Allied forces' consistent misjudgment of the situation resulted in substantial casualties in subsequent military engagements.

Context

• The initial success of the Allied forces in Ottoman territories was later countered by strategic Ottoman victories, such as the defense of Gallipoli, which demonstrated the empire's capacity for resilience and adaptation.
• The initial success of the Allied naval attacks was partly due to the element of surprise and the outdated nature of Ottoman coastal defenses, which had not been modernized to withstand contemporary naval artillery.
• The Ottoman Empire, at its height, spanned three continents, including parts of Europe, Asia, and Africa, which made it challenging to defend due to the sheer size and diversity of its territories.
• During World War I, formal declarations of war were not always issued before hostilities began. This was partly due to the complex web of alliances and the rapid escalation of tensions following the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand in 1914.
• The Gulf of Aqaba is a narrow body of water that serves as a critical access point to the Red Sea. Control over this area was strategically important for maintaining naval dominance and securing maritime routes during World War I.
• The Ottomans were relatively isolated diplomatically, lacking strong alliances that could have provided military support or technological aid.
• The empire was dealing with internal strife and political instability, which diverted attention and resources away from military modernization efforts.
• The British and French military planners' underestimation was partly due to their own overconfidence, stemming from recent successes in colonial expansions and military engagements elsewhere, which led them to dismiss the Ottomans as a serious threat.
• The Allies' broad strategic goals, including opening new fronts and securing Middle Eastern territories, stretched their resources thin and led to miscalculations in troop deployments and engagements.

The Ottoman Empire's setbacks in the Caucasus region and near the Suez Canal greatly influenced the British choice to initiate a major campaign at the Dardanelles.

The British decision to initiate a major offensive at the Dardanelles was influenced by early difficulties encountered in the Caucasus area and near the Suez Canal, even though these difficulties were not overly detrimental by themselves. The Ottomans, despite their alliance obliging them to support the Central Powers, made efforts to remain uninvolved in the conflict for a considerable duration. The Ottoman Empire, swayed by German insistence and the Young Turks' desire to reclaim lost territories, found its forces embroiled in combat with Russian forces in the Caucasus and in conflict with British forces in Egypt as 1914 drew to a close.

In January 1915, the Ottoman Third Army suffered a devastating defeat at Sarikamish due to Enver Pasha's ill-conceived military strategies in the Caucasus. The Ottoman armed forces' vulnerabilities were laid bare when they faced determined foes during the winter months. In under a month, Cemal Pasha led the Ottoman Empire's first assault on the British fortifications at the Suez Canal. By meticulously planning and executing tactical maneuvers, the Ottomans successfully crossed the vast Sinai Peninsula undetected, catching the British off guard. Following strategic errors and miscommunications in their offensive against the Canal Zone, the Ottoman forces had to retreat to their fortified positions in Palestine. Recognizing the Ottoman Empire's difficulties in Mesopotamia, the Caucasus, and near the Suez Canal, British military planners deemed it vulnerable and a prime target for an offensive. In this context, Lord Kitchener proposed a substantial naval operation with the objective of penetrating the straits of the Dardanelles to seize control of Istanbul, the central hub of the Ottoman Empire, thereby dealing a...

The Fall of the Ottomans Summary The disintegration of the Ottoman Empire and the resulting changes in power relationships in the Middle East during a period of turmoil.

The Ottoman Empire's pursuit of strategic partnerships and defensive tactics.

Initially hesitant, the Ottoman Empire preferred to stay out of the conflict in order to preserve its territorial sovereignty.

The Ottomans had not planned to engage in the vast conflict of the Great War. Engaged in numerous conflicts from the late 1800s, the empire often had to cede territory, prompting its leaders to prioritize internal improvements and leaving its citizens with a deep desire for peace. The Ottoman Empire considered the hostilities to be predominantly a quarrel between European countries. The Ottoman Empire did not directly participate in or contribute to the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand in Sarajevo, an act that triggered a series of events escalating to war.

The Ottoman Empire's rulers aimed to remain neutral during the conflict, hoping that by steering clear of the expected prolonged and intense European warfare, they could safeguard the integrity of the empire post-conflict. The Ottoman Empire recognized that aligning with a specific coalition might lead to additional territorial concessions to the victorious alliance in the conflict. Their goal to remain...