Why Young Women Are The Most Miserable They've Ever Been
In this episode of The Jordan B. Peterson Podcast, Jordan Peterson and Jonathan Pageau examine how perception, values, and storytelling shape human understanding of reality. They challenge the reductionist materialist worldview that dominates modern science, arguing that perception is never neutral but always driven by underlying values and attention. The conversation explores how stories—from fairy tales to religious narratives—reveal fundamental value structures and teach audiences about the consequences of different ethical frameworks.
Peterson and Pageau discuss masculine and feminine archetypal principles in traditional stories, examining both their benevolent and pathological expressions. They critique contemporary retellings that depart from these archetypal patterns and argue that religious traditions codify value structures essential for human flourishing. The episode also addresses the dangers of science pursued without ethical grounding, emphasizing that proper aims and transcendent commitments must guide both scientific endeavor and individual life to avoid existential crisis and societal harm.
This is a preview of the Shortform summary of the Nov 2, 2026 episode of the The Jordan B. Peterson Podcast
Sign up for Shortform to access the whole episode summary along with additional materials like counterarguments and context.
1-Page Summary
The Primacy of Value and Attention in Perception
Jordan Peterson and Jonathan Pageau explore how perception, storytelling, and religious traditions shape human understanding of value and meaning, challenging the prevailing scientific worldview of reductionist materialism.
Perception Is Driven by Values, Not Neutral Observation
Peterson explains that perception is inseparable from action and attention. What people look at reveals what they value, and this value structure shapes both perception and action. Modern technology exploits this by tracking eye movements to manipulate priorities. The assumption that perception involves neutrally registering equally valuable facts contradicts scientific findings—perception operates through attention and value, not pure objectivity. People must prioritize data based on their aims and limited resources.
Perception is always shaped by an underlying hierarchy of aims and values before any objective observation occurs. Even in identical environments, individuals with different values perceive things entirely differently. For instance, two people on a date seeking different outcomes—one wanting casual pleasure, the other a long-term partner—will perceive, behave, and communicate in fundamentally different ways despite sharing the same experience.
The notion of value-free science is undermined by the intrinsic role of values in perception. Peterson notes that even high-performing individuals lose perceptual clarity and effectiveness after just two drinks, demonstrating that attention and performance are tied to value-structured engagement. Without ethical frameworks, scientific achievements risk catastrophe, as illustrated by debates around gain-of-function research. Values don't overlay objective reality—they are primary in structuring how reality is perceived and navigated.
Narrative as the Language of Value
Peterson and Pageau explore how stories are the fundamental way humans organize and comprehend value, teaching us to recognize underlying structures that guide behavior and transmit ideals.
Stories Reveal Value Structures Beyond Entertainment
Peterson explains that the primary method for describing the world of value is through story. The universal compulsion to engage with narratives—even paying money to watch horror films that frighten or disgust—signals that stories address something profound, not just entertainment. Horror films allow audiences to safely simulate and explore frameworks of value and consequence, confronting danger, malevolence, and courage in a bounded environment.
Pageau adds that compelling stories reflect an inherent, objective structure of values that cannot be arbitrarily manipulated. People naturally gravitate to stories reflecting genuine orders of attention. If a narrative feels inane or forced—like a poorly executed "Snow White"—it fails because it doesn't connect with the underlying architecture of value to which people are instinctively attuned.
Characters and plot allow audiences to experience the costs and consequences of different value systems imaginatively. Watching James Bond films, viewers infer his values by observing what he attends to and how he acts—serving king and country bravely—without facing real danger. The villain, by contrast, embodies selfishness and chaos, demonstrating through his downfall the negative consequences of malevolent value systems. Through narrative simulation, audiences learn which values bring fulfillment or pain without real-world cost.
Imitation is the main process by which people, especially children, absorb value patterns from stories. Peterson notes that children synthesize the "spirit" of a character from multiple examples and embody that spirit in play, both developing understanding and testing validity through social interaction. Religious traditions transmit idealized archetypes for imitation, such as the benevolent father or Mary as the benevolent mother, producing patterns that guide ethical development across generations.
The Inadequacy of Reductionist Materialism
Peterson argues that reductionist materialism strips the world of inherent value and meaning, with widespread existential and ethical consequences.
Science Claims the World Is Dead Matter, Leading to Existential Crisis
Peterson describes modern science as claiming the world is composed of dead matter with no intrinsic hierarchy of value. This worldview systematically removes meaning from existence. However, Peterson notes a paradox: while one can intellectually dismiss life's significance, suffering and pain remain unavoidably real. Nihilistic philosophies may erode beliefs in meaning but cannot erase the reality of suffering.
Those who embrace a worldview devoid of intrinsic significance often struggle with depression, anxiety, bitterness, or vengeance. Peterson observes this progression is predictable and dangerous. He further notes that materialism itself is based on unprovable assumptions about reality—assumptions that structure conduct and shape existential experience.
Masculine and Feminine Principles Are Fundamental, Not Derivative
Pageau suggests that organisms reflect structural patterns of their environments, framing the masculine and feminine as fundamental principles observable across myth, narrative, and science. He draws analogies between fairy tales and scientific endeavor, noting both depend on the union of two principles—the passive body (chaos) and the active pattern (logos). Scientific work is never value-neutral; it involves selecting and prioritizing facts, an inherently value-driven act.
Peterson and Pageau contend that before any scientific investigation can occur, there must be a prior commitment to the intelligibility of the universe and the value of understanding itself. These are ethical, narrative, and ultimately religious commitments that science cannot supply for itself yet depends upon completely.
Science Without Ethics Is Dangerous
Peterson asserts that the intention and aim of the scientist are more crucial than the data itself. With the same facts, scientists can pursue projects leading to either human flourishing or devastation. He cites Soviet bioweapons programs and gain-of-function research, demonstrating how malevolent intentions harness science for catastrophic ends. Peterson concludes that authentic scientific endeavor is motivated by a transcendent, ultimately religious interest—an ethical orientation toward understanding and the good.
Archetypal Masculine and Feminine Principles in Storytelling
Peterson and Pageau discuss how traditional stories and archetypes shape audience engagement by reflecting deep ethical and psychological patterns, highlighting both positive and negative expressions of masculine and feminine archetypes.
The Benevolent Masculine: Hero and King Serving Transcendent Principles
Peterson explains that the benevolent masculine archetype is symbolized by the hero who aims at something greater than personal self-interest. Biblical figures like Abraham exemplify this through prayer, worship, and self-sacrifice. True maturity is marked by serving future generations, family, and community rather than pursuing only pleasure.
Peterson identifies Christ, the King of Kings, as the ultimate pattern of benevolent kingship. True leaders must serve a principle higher than themselves or risk devolving into tyranny. The benevolent father archetype encourages children to develop competence and courage rather than offering indefinite shelter, providing a foundation for societal order.
Negative Masculinity Manifests as Tyranny and Resentment
When the masculine principle devolves, it manifests as resentment, bitterness, and destructive lust for power. The villain archetype embodies chaos, seeking to inflict pain while refusing cooperation, driven by spite and discontent.
The Benevolent Feminine: Nurturing and Life-Fostering
The positive feminine is represented as nurturing, receptive, and fostering growth—like Mary, the archetypal mother. Peterson explains that feminine receptivity channels masculine striving into productive, life-fostering purpose. In ideal union, women nurture benevolent masculinity in men, and men help women cultivate positive femininity, leading to growth and virtue.
The Evil Queen: The Pathological Mother Sabotaging the Next Generation
The negative feminine archetype is exemplified by the "Evil Queen," who seeks to undermine the younger generation. Peterson describes her aim: to poison young women with destructive ideologies or envy, making them infertile and less capable out of fear of being surpassed. He claims contemporary universities have become domains of such negative influence, leaving young women more miserable despite education.
Peterson notes the "Oedipal mother"—a mother who smothers her child, sabotaging independence and preventing healthy relationships. He also describes older women who refuse to become mentors, instead desperately clinging to youth and sexual competitiveness, bringing social chaos.
Audiences Reject Departures From Archetypal Narratives
Peterson and Pageau critique recent "Snow White" retellings, observing how the reimagined princess contradicts established archetypal patterns. In the new version, the princess instructs dwarfs on housekeeping rather than entering an industrious male environment, inverting traditional roles and producing boredom. The original Grimm tale features hardworking miners who keep a good house—an embodiment of positive masculinity.
Peterson and Pageau argue that the objective structure of values makes stories succeed or fail. The boredom with the modern version arises from its failure to reflect transcendent archetypal patterns. When narratives deviate from these truths, audiences disengage because such stories no longer reflect the underlying principles that sustain meaning and culture.
Religious Traditions as Codifications of Proper Value Structures
Peterson and Pageau explore how religious traditions encapsulate value structures that foster human flourishing through biblical narratives, self-sacrifice, hierarchy, and transcendent service.
Biblical Narratives Teach Flourishing Through Sacrifice and Service
Peterson describes how biblical narratives lay out a "spiraling upward process" culminating in an ultimate aim—often symbolized as the Promised Land or heavenly Jerusalem. These represent the proper aim for human life. True meaning is found in serving the future, spouse, children, community, and nation through voluntary self-sacrifice.
Serving oneself leads to narcissism and isolation, while those who serve others find abundance and belonging. Peterson asserts that the United States historically embodied benevolent self-sacrifice, producing a land of plenty. He cautions that if sacrifices aren't met with appreciation, there may be something wrong with one's aim.
Worship Means Embracing Transcendent Aims
Peterson states that worship is fundamentally about the object of one's ultimate attention, not merely ritual. Every act of focus is worship toward some consciously or unconsciously pursued goal. He emphasizes the importance of being careful with attention, especially given attention-hijacking technologies.
In relationships, shared ultimate aims are necessary. Partners flourish when they share goals such as mutual development through marriage. If their aims conflict—one seeking short-term gratification while the other wants commitment—dysfunction results. Marriage and raising a family form the societal foundation that religious narratives support.
Proper Human Development Follows a Sequence
Peterson and Pageau discuss the proper pattern of human development: beginning with young love, leading to parenthood, then grandparenthood focused on wisdom and the next generation. This progression fosters meaning, peace, and civilization. Deviation—such as competing with younger people for attention—leads to bitterness and chaos. Religious teachings inculcate that fulfillment and virtue are achieved through acceptance of hierarchy and selfless service.
Scientific Pursuit as Religious Endeavor
Peterson argues that genuine scientists are called by their object of inquiry—a commitment akin to religious calling. If science is oriented toward abundance, peace, and truth, it becomes beneficent. If aimed at domination or destruction, it serves malevolence. Peterson warns that science without ethical guidance risks producing dangerous technologies. He urges that scientists must pursue human flourishing, not just technological advance, and that ethics embedded in religious traditions provide the essential foundation for this endeavor.
1-Page Summary
Additional Materials
Clarifications
- Reductionist materialism is a philosophical view that everything in the universe, including consciousness and values, can be fully explained by physical matter and its interactions. It reduces complex phenomena to basic physical components, ignoring subjective experience and intrinsic meaning. This approach often dismisses spiritual, ethical, or metaphysical dimensions as illusions or irrelevant. Critics argue it leads to a worldview that neglects human purpose and moral significance.
- Perception is an active process where the brain selects and interprets sensory information based on what is important or relevant to the individual. Values act as filters that prioritize certain stimuli over others, shaping what we notice and how we interpret it. Attention directs mental resources toward these prioritized stimuli, making perception inherently subjective and goal-oriented. This means we never perceive the world as a neutral observer but always through the lens of our interests and needs.
- Gain-of-function research involves genetically modifying organisms, often viruses, to enhance their abilities, such as transmissibility or virulence. It is controversial because it carries risks of accidental release, potentially causing pandemics. Proponents argue it helps understand pathogens and develop treatments, while critics warn of biosecurity dangers. The debate centers on balancing scientific benefits against ethical and safety concerns.
- Archetypes are universal, symbolic patterns or characters that recur across cultures and stories, representing fundamental human experiences. They function as psychological templates that shape how people understand themselves and others. In storytelling, archetypes help convey deep meanings and moral lessons by embodying essential values and conflicts. Psychologically, they influence behavior and perception by providing familiar frameworks for interpreting life events.
- The "benevolent" masculine principle embodies responsibility, protection, and service to others, fostering order and growth. The "negative" masculine manifests as tyranny, resentment, and destructive power seeking control. The "benevolent" feminine represents nurturing, receptivity, and life-giving support that enables growth and harmony. The "negative" feminine involves sabotage, envy, and obstruction, undermining development and social cohesion.
- The term "Oedipal mother" relates to psychoanalytic theory, referencing the child's emotional conflict during the Oedipus complex stage. It describes a mother who is overly controlling or possessive, hindering the child's psychological independence. This dynamic can prevent healthy separation and development of autonomy in the child. The concept highlights how early family relationships shape emotional growth and future social interactions.
- "Logos" is an ancient Greek term meaning reason, order, or principle governing the cosmos. It represents structure, meaning, and the active organizing force in both myth and science. "Chaos" symbolizes the unknown, disorder, and potentiality from which order emerges. Together, they describe the dynamic interplay between stability and change essential to creation and understanding.
- Scientific inquiry assumes that the universe is understandable and that truth is valuable, which are ethical and philosophical commitments. These assumptions guide what questions are asked and how evidence is interpreted. Without a shared narrative or framework of meaning, science lacks direction and purpose. Religious traditions historically provided these frameworks, embedding science within broader values and goals.
- Science without ethics is dangerous because it can enable harmful applications, such as biological weapons designed to cause mass suffering. The Soviet bioweapons program secretly developed and stockpiled deadly pathogens for warfare, violating ethical norms and international law. This example shows how scientific knowledge, when divorced from moral responsibility, can lead to catastrophic consequences. Ethical oversight ensures science serves humanity's well-being rather than destruction.
- "Transcendent" motivations refer to values or purposes that go beyond immediate, material concerns, often linked to higher ideals or ultimate meaning. In science and ethics, this means actions are guided by commitments to truth, human flourishing, or the common good rather than mere technical success or personal gain. These motivations are called "religious" because they resemble faith-based dedication to principles that cannot be proven empirically but shape behavior and goals. Such commitments provide a moral framework that grounds responsible and purposeful scientific inquiry.
- Biblical narratives use stories and symbols to communicate moral and ethical principles that guide human behavior. These stories encode lessons about sacrifice, responsibility, and community that shape cultural values. They function as frameworks for understanding how to live meaningfully within a social and spiritual order. This codification helps transmit complex value systems across generations in an accessible form.
- Worship, in this context, means focusing your deepest attention and commitment on what you consider most important or valuable. It is not limited to religious ceremonies but includes any ultimate goal or ideal that shapes your actions and priorities. This focus directs your energy and decisions, effectively shaping your life’s meaning. Thus, worship is about where you place your ultimate concern, consciously or unconsciously.
- Modern retellings of traditional stories like "Snow White" are critiqued for altering core archetypal roles that convey deep cultural values. These archetypes represent fundamental human experiences and ethical patterns that resonate universally. Changing them disrupts the story’s ability to connect with audiences on a meaningful level, causing disengagement. The original narratives succeed because they reflect enduring psychological and social truths embedded in these archetypes.
- The "Evil Queen" archetype symbolizes a destructive maternal figure who undermines younger women’s growth through envy or harmful ideologies, causing social and psychological harm. The "Oedipal mother" refers to a mother who excessively controls or smothers her child, hindering their independence and healthy emotional development. Both archetypes represent negative maternal influences that disrupt natural maturation and social harmony. These concepts draw from psychoanalytic theory and cultural narratives about family dynamics and personal development.
- Attention-hijacking technologies are digital tools designed to capture and hold users' focus, often through notifications, algorithms, or addictive content. These technologies divert attention away from meaningful goals and values by promoting distraction and instant gratification. Proper worship and value orientation require focused, intentional attention on transcendent aims, which these technologies undermine. Consequently, they weaken individuals' ability to prioritize long-term meaning over short-term impulses.
- The sequence of human development reflects traditional life stages that align with increasing responsibility and wisdom. Young love represents initial romantic and personal growth focused on forming intimate bonds. Parenthood involves nurturing and raising children, emphasizing care and sacrifice for the next generation. Grandparenthood symbolizes the transmission of accumulated wisdom and guidance to support family and community continuity.
- Scientific pursuit resembles a religious calling because it requires deep commitment, passion, and a sense of purpose beyond mere data collection. Scientists often dedicate their lives to seeking truth and understanding, driven by values and ethical considerations. This commitment parallels religious devotion, where faith and meaning guide actions. Thus, science is not value-neutral but motivated by a transcendent aim to improve human flourishing.
- Archetypes like "benevolent kingship," "hero," and "villain" are universal symbolic roles representing fundamental ethical patterns in human culture. The "benevolent king" embodies leadership that serves the common good and upholds justice. The "hero" symbolizes courage and self-sacrifice for a higher purpose. The "villain" represents destructive forces opposing order and virtue.
- Perception is an active process where the brain filters and interprets sensory input based on what is important or relevant to the individual. Values act as a lens that prioritizes certain stimuli over others, shaping what we notice and how we understand it. This means that what we perceive is influenced by our goals, emotions, and cultural background, not just raw sensory data. Therefore, values are foundational in organizing experience, not merely added after objective facts are gathered.
Counterarguments
- While perception is influenced by values and attention, there is substantial evidence from cognitive science and neuroscience that humans are also capable of objective, value-neutral observation in certain contexts, such as basic sensory processing or controlled scientific experiments.
- The claim that value-free science is impossible is contested; many scientists argue that methodological objectivity and peer review help minimize individual biases, allowing for the accumulation of reliable knowledge independent of personal values.
- The assertion that stories reflect "objective" value structures is debated; literary theory and anthropology show that narrative preferences and archetypes vary significantly across cultures and historical periods.
- The idea that modern retellings of traditional stories are inherently less compelling is subjective; many contemporary audiences find value and engagement in narratives that subvert or reinterpret archetypes.
- The characterization of universities as domains of negative feminine influence is a broad generalization and not supported by empirical evidence; research shows that higher education is associated with a range of outcomes for women, including increased well-being and empowerment.
- The binary framing of masculine and feminine archetypes as fundamental and universal is challenged by gender studies and cross-cultural research, which demonstrate that gender roles and archetypes are socially constructed and vary widely.
- The claim that religious traditions are the only or primary source of ethical frameworks for science is disputed; secular philosophies, humanism, and ethical systems independent of religion have also provided robust foundations for scientific ethics.
- The assertion that science without religiously derived ethics is inherently dangerous overlooks the existence of secular ethical guidelines, such as those developed in bioethics, human rights, and international scientific organizations.
- The idea that deviation from a prescribed developmental sequence (young love, parenthood, grandparenthood) leads to bitterness and chaos is not universally supported; many people find fulfillment and meaning in alternative life paths.
- The notion that suffering and pain are evidence against materialism is not accepted by all philosophers; many materialists acknowledge suffering as a real phenomenon without attributing it to a lack of intrinsic meaning.
- The claim that the United States historically embodied benevolent self-sacrifice is contested by historians who point to instances of self-interest, exploitation, and inequality in American history.
- The view that attention is always a form of worship is a metaphorical interpretation and not a universally accepted psychological or philosophical principle.
- The assertion that audiences universally reject narratives that depart from archetypal value structures is contradicted by the popularity of experimental, avant-garde, and non-traditional storytelling in literature and film.
Get access to the context and additional materials
The Primacy of Value and Attention in Perception
Perception Relies On Attention and Values Over Neutral Facts Reception
Perception is inseparable from action; every glance depends on an intentional or unconscious eye movement. What people direct their eyes towards reveals what they pay attention to, and in turn, what they value. This value structure shapes not only perception but also action in the world. Modern phones and surveillance systems exploit this by tracking eye movements to analyze and manipulate individuals’ priorities. Companies capitalize on this by designing technologies that capture attention, recognizing its supreme value.
The assumption that perception is only about registering neutral, equally valuable facts contradicts what science has revealed about perception. The scientific model treats the world as composed of dead matter, on which humans arbitrarily impose values. However, research in biology and psychology demonstrates that perception itself operates through attention and value, not pure objectivity. Individuals cannot perceive neutrally; they must navigate the world by prioritizing and valuing some data over others because of their aims and limited resources.
Values Shape Perception, Prior to Objective Observation
Perception is always shaped by an underlying hierarchy of aims and values far before any supposed objective observation occurs. People organize their attention based on what they are trying to achieve; thus, aims and goals fundamentally structure what is perceived. Even in the same environment, individuals with different values and priorities interpret and perceive that environment in entirely different ways.
For instance, if two people go on a date, and one is looking for short-term pleasure (a one-night stand) while the other seeks a long-term partner (a spouse), their perceptions, body language, and behaviors will all differ, even though they share the same experience. Commitment and casual engagement lead to fundamentally different modes of perception.
Stories and narratives teach how to direct attention and organize actions based on valued aims. Navigation in life demands prioritization—a necessity forced by limited attention, time, and energy. One must constantly choose and commit to certain aims, thereby shaping the world as it appears through their perceptions.
Inability to Remain Neutral Undermines Value-Free Science
The notion of a value-free science, in which facts are observed from a ...
Here’s what you’ll find in our full summary
The Primacy of Value and Attention in Perception
Additional Materials
Clarifications
- Value structures are the internal systems of preferences and priorities that guide what individuals consider important or relevant. These structures influence which stimuli capture attention and how information is interpreted. They develop from personal experiences, cultural background, and biological needs. Consequently, value structures direct both perception and subsequent decisions or actions.
- Perception is an active process where the brain selects and interprets sensory information based on what is important or relevant. Attention acts as a filter, focusing on certain stimuli while ignoring others, influenced by personal goals and emotions. Values guide this focus by determining what matters most to an individual in a given context. Thus, perception is shaped by subjective priorities, not just passive reception of neutral facts.
- The scientific model often views the world as composed of inert, physical objects governed by natural laws, independent of human feelings or meanings. In this view, values like good or bad are not inherent in nature but are assigned by humans based on their perspectives or goals. This approach aims for objectivity by separating facts from subjective judgments. Critics argue this ignores how perception and meaning are influenced by human values from the start.
- Biology shows that sensory systems filter vast information, highlighting stimuli relevant to survival or goals. Psychology reveals that attention selectively focuses mental resources on important inputs, influenced by emotions and motivations. Studies demonstrate that perception is not passive reception but active interpretation shaped by what an individual values. This means perception is inherently biased toward meaningful or prioritized information.
- A "hierarchy of aims and values" means that people prioritize some goals and beliefs over others, which influences what they notice first. This prioritization acts like a filter, guiding attention toward information relevant to those priorities. It shapes perception by making certain details more salient while ignoring others, even before conscious thought. Thus, perception is an active process influenced by personal motivations, not a passive reception of neutral facts.
- Eye movement tracking technologies record where and how long a person looks at specific areas on a screen or in an environment. By analyzing these patterns, companies infer what captures a person's interest or priority. This data helps tailor content or advertisements to direct attention toward desired products or messages. Manipulation occurs when designs exploit these insights to influence choices and behaviors subtly.
- Jordan Peterson is a clinical psychologist known for discussing how cognitive performance depends on mental clarity and focus. He has noted that even small amounts of alcohol impair attention, decision-making, and perception. This impairment reduces a person's ability to engage effectively with complex tasks or social interactions. The example illustrates how attention and value-driven engagement are essential for clear perception and effective action.
- Gain-of-function research involves altering vir ...
Counterarguments
- While attention and values influence perception, there is evidence from cognitive science that certain aspects of perception (such as basic sensory processing) occur pre-attentively and are not always shaped by values or goals.
- The claim that scientific models treat the world as "dead matter" and ignore values oversimplifies the philosophy of science; many scientific disciplines explicitly consider observer effects, context, and the role of interpretation.
- The existence of intersubjective agreement in scientific observation (e.g., repeatable experiments) suggests that some aspects of perception can be sufficiently objective for practical purposes, even if not perfectly value-free.
- Eye-tracking and attention-capturing technologies can analyze priorities, but their ability to fully "manipulate" values or deeply restructure perception is debated and may be limited.
- The assertion that values always precede and structure perception may not account for cases where perception leads to the formation or revision of values (e.g., encountering unexpected evidence).
- Ethical considerations are important in science, but the existence of ethical frameworks does not necessaril ...
Get access to the context and additional materials
Narrative as the Language of Value
Jordan Peterson and Jonathan Pageau explore how stories are not merely entertainment, but the fundamental way humans organize and comprehend value. Through narrative, we recognize underlying structures of value that guide our behavior, illustrate costs and consequences, and transmit ideals through imitation.
Stories Convey and Comprehend Value Structures Beyond Mere Entertainment
Peterson explains that the primary method for describing and communicating the world of value is through story. The universal compulsion to engage with narratives—despite cost, effort, or even discomfort—signals that stories speak to a profound aspect of human nature, not just a trivial psychological preference. Peterson emphasizes that when people choose to line up and pay money to go to the movies, they’re not just seeking enjoyment. For instance, watching horror films, which disgust or frighten, is not pleasure in the usual sense. The latent draw is that narratives outline, test, and reveal value hierarchies.
Horror films, Peterson notes, allow audiences to simulate and explore frameworks of value and consequence in a safe environment. The emotional and psychological experiences generated—fear, disgust, relief, and resolution—let people confront and understand danger, malevolence, and courage in a bounded fashion. The existence of genres like horror shows that the enjoyment of story goes beyond surface entertainment; it reflects an intrinsic drive to grapple with moral realities and value systems.
Compelling stories, adds Pageau, reflect an inherent, objective structure of values. This structure cannot be arbitrarily manufactured or endlessly manipulated for propaganda, because people naturally gravitate to stories that reflect genuine orders of attention. If a narrative feels inane or boring—like a poorly executed or ideologically forced version of "Snow White"—it fails precisely because it does not connect with the underlying architecture of value to which people are instinctively attuned.
Characters and Action Reveal Costs and Consequences of Value Systems Through Embodied Experience
Peterson highlights that characters and plot allow audiences to experience, in imagination, the costs and consequences of different value systems. Viewers see a hero’s choices and can internally simulate the emotions, perceptions, and results of those values—risk-free. Watching action and adventure films such as James Bond, viewers infer James Bond’s values by watching what he attends to and how he acts—serving king and country bravely—without facing real danger themselves.
The villain, by contrast, embodies aims of selfishness, chaos, and resentment, refusing cooperation, which is dramatized on screen as a spiraling downfall. Film after film demonstrates the negative consequences of such aimless or malevolent value systems, teaching viewers by example not to emulate this path. On the other hand, the hero’s continual aim beyond self-centered interests—serving something greater than himself—offers a lesson about proper aim and moral action. The hero’s bravery and devotion inspire viewers to imagine what it is like to pursue lofty ideals and to understand, in a low-level religious sense, that the highest forms of heroism serve others beyond the self.
Peterson explains that through such narrative simulation, audiences learn which values move people forward or hold them back—what brings fulfillment, what results in pain or chaos—by mimicking the character’s frame of value emotionally and perceptually, but without real-world cost.
Imitation of Archetypes Shapes Development and Social Trans ...
Here’s what you’ll find in our full summary
Narrative as the Language of Value
Additional Materials
Clarifications
- Value hierarchies are ranked systems of what is considered important or worthwhile in life. Narratives reveal these hierarchies by showing which actions, goals, or traits characters prioritize and the consequences of those choices. Through conflict and resolution, stories illustrate which values lead to success or failure. This helps audiences understand and internalize complex moral and practical priorities.
- Horror films create controlled scenarios where viewers face fear and danger symbolically, allowing safe emotional engagement with threats. This engagement helps people mentally rehearse responses to real-life moral challenges and dangers. The genre often highlights themes of good versus evil, courage, and survival, reflecting deeper value conflicts. Thus, horror acts as a psychological and moral training ground through narrative simulation.
- "Objective structures of value" refer to consistent, universal patterns of meaning and moral significance that resonate across cultures and time. These structures emerge from shared human experiences and psychological realities, not from arbitrary invention. Because they reflect deep truths about human nature and social order, stories that align with them feel authentic and compelling. Attempts to fabricate value systems without this grounding often result in narratives that feel hollow or unconvincing.
- The "underlying architecture of value" refers to the deep, often unconscious system of principles and priorities that shape what people find important or meaningful. It is a shared, innate framework that guides emotional and moral responses to situations and stories. People are instinctively attuned to this structure because it reflects fundamental human needs and social realities shaped by evolution and culture. Narratives resonate when they align with this architecture, making their messages feel authentic and compelling.
- Characters and plot create scenarios where audiences mentally place themselves in the story, imagining the emotions and decisions involved. This mental role-play helps people understand the real-life implications of certain values without facing actual risks. By observing outcomes in the story, viewers learn which values lead to positive or negative consequences. This process builds empathy and moral insight through safe, indirect experience.
- Heroes serving "something greater than himself" act out values like duty, sacrifice, and commitment to a cause beyond personal gain, often representing societal or moral ideals. Villains embody selfishness and chaos by prioritizing personal desires, disrupting order, and rejecting communal responsibility. This contrast highlights moral frameworks where heroism aligns with cooperation and meaning, while villainy aligns with isolation and destruction. The narrative tension arises from this fundamental opposition of values and aims.
- The phrase "in a low-level religious sense" refers to a basic, intuitive way people experience sacred or transcendent meaning without formal religious doctrine. It suggests that heroism connects to deep, archetypal patterns found in many religions, symbolizing self-sacrifice and service beyond the self. This understanding is emotional and symbolic rather than theological or dogmatic. It highlights how stories evoke a sense of the sacred through moral exemplars like heroes.
- Children observe various behaviors, attitudes, and emotions from different role models across contexts. They mentally combine these traits to form an internal, generalized understanding of a character type or archetype. This synthesis goes beyond copying specific actions to grasp the underlying qualities and motivations. It helps children create flexible, meaningful models for their own behavior and social interaction.
- Religious traditions use stories and rituals to embody ideal traits, creating clear models for behavior. These archetypes, lik ...
Counterarguments
- While stories are a powerful way to communicate values, other forms such as direct instruction, laws, rituals, and visual art also play significant roles in transmitting and shaping values across cultures.
- The claim that compelling stories reflect "objective" structures of value is debatable; what is considered compelling or valuable can vary widely across cultures and historical periods.
- Some people do consume stories primarily for entertainment or escapism, without consciously engaging with underlying value structures.
- Not all narratives that fail to resonate with audiences do so because they lack connection to value hierarchies; factors like poor writing, acting, or production quality can also be responsible.
- The assertion that propaganda fails because it does not connect with genuine value structures overlooks the historical effectiveness of propaganda in shaping beliefs and behaviors.
- The dichotomy of heroes as selfless and villains as selfish or chaotic can be overly simplistic; many stories feature morally ambiguous characters or challenge traditional value hierarchies.
- Children and adults also learn values through observation of real-life behavior, not just t ...
Get access to the context and additional materials
The Inadequacy of Reductionist Materialism
Jordan Peterson argues that the prevailing scientific worldview—reductionist materialism—strips the world of inherent value and meaning, which has widespread existential and ethical consequences.
Scientific View Claims World Is Dead Matter With Arbitrary Value Is Existentially Destructive and False
Peterson describes modern science as intentionally value-free, asserting that in its purest form, science claims that the world is composed of dead matter. Facts, according to this perspective, possess no intrinsic hierarchy of value; thus, none should be arbitrarily privileged over others. This worldview systematically removes meaning and significance from existence.
Paradoxically, Removing Meaning Leaves Suffering Since Pain Persists Despite Nihilistic Philosophy
Despite this removal of meaning, Peterson notes a paradox: while one can dismiss the significance of life through critique, suffering and pain remain unavoidably real. Even for those convinced that nothing genuinely matters, pain and anxiety do not lose their impact. He stresses that nihilistic philosophies may successfully erode beliefs in life’s meaning, but cannot erase the reality of suffering.
Depression, Anxiety, Bitterness, and Vengeance Result Predictably From a Worldview Denying Existence's Intrinsic Significance
Peterson observes that those who embrace a worldview devoid of intrinsic significance often struggle with depression and anxiety, and potentially become bitter or vengeful. This progression, he says, is predictable and dangerous: as the positive aspects of existence are denied, the burden of suffering grows heavier, potentially leading to destructive attitudes and actions.
Materialist Framework Relies On Unprovable a Priori Assumptions
Peterson further notes that even self-identified religious individuals often operate with a scientific rationalism layered with only a superficial religious "veneer." He criticizes this stance as insufficient, highlighting that materialism itself is based on unprovable a priori assumptions about the nature of reality, assumptions which structure conduct and shape existential experience.
Organisms Reflect Environmental Structures, Making Masculine and Feminine Principles Fundamental, Not Derivative
Dawkins's View: Organisms as Environment Microcosms Reflect Masculine-Feminine Dynamic
Jonathan Pageau supplements Peterson’s argument by suggesting that organisms are microcosms that reflect the structural patterns of their environments. He frames the masculine and feminine not as mere archetypes but as fundamental principles observable across myth, narrative, and even science.
Pageau draws analogies between fairy tales and the scientific endeavor, noting that both depend on the union of two principles—the passive body (akin to earth or chaos) and the active pattern or purpose (akin to the seed or logos). He references the narrative of Snow White and biblical or mythological archetypes as examples of this productive union, suggesting such structures underpin both living systems and meaningful knowledge creation.
Active, Value-Driven Perception Challenges the Materialist View of Passive Fact Reception
Pageau argues that scientific work is never a value-neutral scrutiny of everything at once; instead, it involves selecting and prioritizing facts—an inherently value-driven act. Peterson supports this with the metaphor of “potentially productive chaos” (valueless facts) that only becomes meaningful through the intentional, active focus—a process reminiscent of the fructifying logos uniting with potential.
Scientific Endeavor Requires Commitment to the Universe's Intelligibility and Understanding's Value, Which Aren't Derived From the Scientific Method
Peterson and Pageau contend that before any scientific investigation can occur, there must already be a prior commitment to the intelligibility of the universe and the project of understanding itself. These are ethical, narrative, and ultimately religious commitments that science cannot supply for itself, yet depend upon utterly.
Incomplete and Dangerous: Science Without an Ethical Framew ...
Here’s what you’ll find in our full summary
The Inadequacy of Reductionist Materialism
Additional Materials
Clarifications
- Reductionist materialism is the belief that everything in the universe, including consciousness and life, can be fully explained by physical matter and its interactions. It reduces complex phenomena to their simplest physical components, ignoring non-material aspects like meaning or purpose. This view often excludes values, emotions, or subjective experiences from scientific explanations. Its implication is that life and existence lack inherent meaning beyond physical processes.
- "Value-free" or "value-neutral" science means that scientific methods aim to observe and describe facts without letting personal beliefs, ethics, or social values influence the results. It assumes that facts exist independently of human judgment and should be reported objectively. This ideal helps ensure that scientific findings are unbiased and universally valid. However, the choice of what to study and how to interpret data can still involve implicit values.
- Nihilistic philosophy denies inherent meaning or value in life, suggesting nothing truly matters. However, physical and emotional pain are biological and psychological realities that persist regardless of belief. This creates a paradox where suffering remains impactful even if one believes life lacks meaning. Thus, rejecting meaning does not eliminate the experience of pain or distress.
- "A priori assumptions" are beliefs accepted as true without needing empirical proof. In materialism, these include the idea that only physical matter exists and that everything can be explained by physical processes. These assumptions shape how materialists interpret reality but cannot themselves be proven by science. Thus, materialism relies on foundational beliefs that are philosophical, not scientific.
- Masculine and feminine principles are archetypal forces representing complementary dynamics, such as activity and passivity or order and chaos. These principles appear across cultures in myths, symbolizing fundamental patterns of reality and human experience. They are not about gender but about structural roles that shape life and meaning. Recognizing them helps explain how complex systems, including organisms and narratives, maintain balance and generate growth.
- Fairy tales like Snow White symbolize the union of opposing forces, such as chaos and order, or passive and active principles. This union represents a creative process that brings meaning and life, similar to how scientific inquiry combines raw data (chaos) with guiding hypotheses (order). The analogy suggests that science is not just collecting facts but involves a purposeful, value-driven synthesis. Thus, both fairy tales and science reflect fundamental patterns of transformation and understanding.
- "Logos" is an ancient Greek term meaning "word," "reason," or "principle," often signifying the rational order underlying the universe. In philosophy and religion, especially in Stoicism and Christian theology, it represents the divine reason or creative principle that organizes and gives meaning to reality. The phrase "fructifying logos" refers to this principle actively bringing potential into actual, productive existence, like a seed causing growth. It symbolizes the dynamic, generative force that transforms chaos or raw material into ordered, meaningful form.
- Scientific perception involves choosing which facts to observe and prioritize, reflecting underlying values and goals. Scientists do not passively receive all data; they actively interpret and select information based on what they consider important or relevant. This selection shapes the direction and meaning of scientific inquiry. Thus, science is guided by human interests and values, not purely objective observation.
- Science depends on the assumption that the universe is orderly and understandable, which is not proven by science itself. This assumption reflects a deeper belief or commitment about the nature of reality, often rooted in ethical or religious worldviews. Without these commitments, the motivation to seek truth or value in knowledge lacks foundation. Thus, science operates within a broader framework of meaning that it cannot generate on its own.
- During the Cold War, the Soviet Union developed extensive biological weapons programs, producing pathogens like anthrax and smallpox for warfare. These programs aimed to create highly contagious and deadly agents to use as weapons, violating international treaties. The secrecy and scale of these efforts caused global concern about the misuse of scientific research. Such examples illustrate how science can be exploited for harmful purposes without ethical oversight.
- Gain-of-function research involves genetically altering organis ...
Counterarguments
- Many scientists and philosophers argue that reductionist materialism does not necessarily entail nihilism or the absence of meaning; individuals can and do construct meaning within a materialist framework.
- The claim that science removes value and meaning from existence is contested; science is a method for understanding the natural world, not a comprehensive worldview, and does not preclude individuals or societies from assigning value or meaning.
- Psychological research indicates that people with secular or materialist worldviews can experience purpose, fulfillment, and well-being comparable to those with religious or spiritual beliefs.
- The assertion that nihilism predictably leads to depression, anxiety, bitterness, and vengeance is not universally supported by empirical evidence; mental health outcomes are influenced by a complex interplay of factors beyond worldview alone.
- The idea that materialism relies on unprovable a priori assumptions is not unique to materialism; all philosophical systems, including religious and idealist frameworks, rest on foundational assumptions.
- The interpretation of masculine and feminine principles as fundamental, rather than derivative or culturally constructed, is debated in both scientific and humanities disciplines.
- The analogy between mythological archetypes and scientific processes is not universally accepted; many scientists view scientific methodology as distinct from narrative or mythic structures.
- The necessity of a religious or transcendent motivation for scientific inquiry is disputed; many scientists are motivated by curiosity, societal be ...
Get access to the context and additional materials
Archetypal Masculine and Feminine Principles In Storytelling
Jordan Peterson and Jonathan Pageau discuss how traditional stories and archetypes shape audience engagement by reflecting deep ethical and psychological patterns. They highlight both the positive and negative expressions of masculine and feminine archetypes, illustrating their enduring relevance and explaining why departures from these models, such as in recent retellings of "Snow White," fail to captivate audiences.
Benevolent Masculine Archetype: Hero and King Serving Transcendent Principle and Future Community
Hero Stands Apart By Aiming Beyond Self-Interest
Peterson explains that the benevolent masculine archetype is symbolized by the hero who stands apart from others by aiming at something greater than personal self-interest. Biblical figures like Abraham and Jacob exemplify this spirit by inviting a force beyond themselves—through prayer, worship, and the sacrifice of unworthy parts of themselves—to possess them. This mature masculinity culminates in the voluntary self-sacrifice necessary for families and communities to thrive. A man who pursues only personal pleasure becomes a narcissistic pretender; true maturity is marked by serving future generations, one's wife, children, community, and state.
Christ as King of Kings Embodies the Ultimate Masculine Principle That Genuine Sovereigns Must Honor, Preventing Tyrants Who Think They Are Above Principles
Peterson identifies Christ, the King of Kings, as the ultimate pattern of benevolent kingship. True leaders, whether kings or presidents, must serve a principle higher than themselves or risk devolving into tyranny. In biblical tradition, God as the "spirit of the benevolent father" is that upward aim across generations, and mature rulers or fathers who are beholden to such transcendent principles can be trusted, avoiding the dangers of power's corruption.
Father Figure Teaches Courage and Competence Over Shelter
Rather than sheltering indefinitely, the benevolent father archetype encourages children to develop competence and courage. This framework guards against overprotection and nurtures autonomy, providing a foundation for societal order.
Mature Man Prioritizes Service To Wife, Children, Community, and State Over Hedonistic Pleasure
A truly mature man, in Peterson's view, places service above mere hedonism, building for the future rather than squandering energy on selfishness.
Negative Masculinity Manifests as Tyranny, Resentment, and the Desire to Cause Chaos and Suffering For Gratification
When the masculine principle devolves, it manifests as resentment, bitterness, and a destructive lust for power. Peterson remarks that extreme competition for power alone, instead of noble aims, can come to represent the oppressive patriarchy.
Villain Seeks Mayhem and Pain, Refusing Cooperation, and Embodying Resentment and Bitterness
The villain archetype embodies chaos and seeks to inflict pain, refusing to cooperate for shared benefit, and is driven by discontent and spite.
Power Struggles Reflect Oppressive Patriarchal Domination
Such negative masculinity is reflected in stories through tyrannical rulers or characters whose primary motivation is dominance rather than service, showcasing where ethical systems and value hierarchies falter.
Benevolent Feminine Archetype: Nurturing, Protective Maternal Figures Like Mary Encourage Virtue Development
The positive feminine is represented as nurturing, receptive, and fostering growth—like Mary, the archetypal mother.
Feminine Shapes Masculine Purpose Into Productivity
Peterson explains that feminine receptivity and care channel masculine striving into productive, life-fostering purpose.
Women Encourage Benevolent Masculinity, Men Foster Feminine Virtues in Marriage
In the ideal union, women nurture the benevolent masculine in men, and men help women cultivate positive femininity, leading to growth and virtue in marriage.
Positive Femininity: Fostering Life and Growth Through Receptivity, Care, and Abstract Values
This archetype embodies life-giving qualities, guiding societies and individuals toward generativity and meaning.
The Evil Queen: The Negative Feminine Pathological Mother Sabotaging the Next Generation
The negative or pathological feminine archetype is exemplified by the "Evil Queen," who seeks to undermine and control the younger generation.
Evil Queen Poisons Apples, Keeping Women Unconscious, Infertile, and Unattractive to Prevent Them From Surpassing Her
Peterson describes the Evil Queen's aim: to poison young women (with "apples" of destructive ideologies or envy), making them infertile, unattractive, and less capable, out of fear of being surpassed. He claims contemporary culture, especially universities, have become domains of such negative influence, leaving young women more miserable despite education.
Oedipal Mother Hinders Child's Independence, Relationships, and Family Formation
Peterson notes Freud’s insight into the “Oedipal mother” — a mother who smothers and holds onto her child, especially sons, sabotaging their independence and preventing the formation of healthy relationships and new families. This pathology, he contends, can destroy future generations.
Mode ...
Here’s what you’ll find in our full summary
Archetypal Masculine and Feminine Principles In Storytelling
Additional Materials
Counterarguments
- The assertion that audiences universally reject modern retellings of classic stories like "Snow White" is not empirically established; some viewers appreciate reinterpretations that subvert traditional archetypes or offer new perspectives.
- The claim that archetypal masculine and feminine roles are universally relevant or necessary for audience engagement overlooks the diversity of cultural storytelling traditions, many of which feature different or fluid gender roles and still achieve resonance and popularity.
- The idea that universities or contemporary culture act as "Evil Queens" poisoning young women with ideology is a contentious generalization; higher education has also empowered many women, improved social mobility, and contributed to gender equality.
- The interpretation of biblical figures and Christian archetypes as the ultimate or only valid models for positive masculinity and femininity may not be shared by people from non-Christian or secular backgrounds, who find meaning in other ethical frameworks.
- The notion that deviation from traditional archetypes leads to audience disengagement does not account for the success of many stories that intentionally subvert or reinterpret archetypes, such as those in contemporary literature, film, and television.
- The binary framing of masculine and feminine archetypes may not reflect the lived experiences of non-binary, transgender, or ...
Actionables
- You can keep a daily journal where you identify and reflect on moments when you acted from self-interest versus when you served a higher principle or helped others, then set a small goal each day to choose service or self-sacrifice in a specific situation (like helping a family member, volunteering, or supporting a friend’s project).
- A practical way to strengthen positive archetypal traits is to create a weekly challenge for yourself to embody a specific virtue (such as courage, nurturing, or competence) in your interactions, then briefly note the outcome and how it affected your relationships or sense of purpose.
- You can review your favorite stori ...
Get access to the context and additional materials
Religious Traditions as Codifications of Proper Value Structures
Jordan Peterson and Jonathan Pageau explore how religious traditions encapsulate value structures that foster human flourishing. Through biblical narratives, the foundation of self-sacrifice and hierarchy, and even the pursuit of science, they delineate the frameworks that guide individuals toward meaning and civilization.
Biblical Narratives: Human Flourishing Via Sacrifice, Hierarchy, and Transcendent Service
Peterson describes how biblical narratives lay out a "spiraling upward process," which culminates in the pursuit of an ultimate aim—a transcendent destination often symbolized as the Promised Land, shining city on a hill, or heavenly Jerusalem. These represent abstractions of the proper aim for human life. When someone selects an appropriate aim, the world presents a pathway forward; the individual who follows this path becomes the hero, a figure dramatized in narrative as an example for others.
Peterson emphasizes the voluntary spirit of self-sacrifice as the sustenance of mature families and communities. True meaning, he argues, is found in serving the future, spouse, children, community, state, and nation. He notes that the narratives in the biblical corpus consistently demonstrate self-sacrifice, notably in action-adventure dramas featuring heroes, and point out that Christianity, along with its Old Testament roots, sees ultimate sacrifice as pleasing to God.
He explains that serving oneself leads not to fulfillment but to narcissism and isolation, pushing others away. By contrast, those who serve others and dedicate themselves to their families and broader communities find abundance and belonging. Peterson asserts that the United States historically embodied the spirit of benevolent self-sacrifice, producing a land of plenty, and that this should remain the highest aim.
He cautions that if sacrifices are not met with appreciation from oneself, others, or God, there may be something pathologically wrong with one's aim.
Religious Worship Means Embracing a Transcendent Aim Over Rituals or Hymns
Peterson states that worship is fundamentally about the object of one's ultimate attention, not merely about ritual or hymns. Every glance and act of focus is an act of worship toward some consciously or unconsciously pursued goal. Worship, he defines, is celebrating and holding something in the highest regard, subjugating oneself to the aim one values most. He emphasizes the importance of being careful with our attention, especially in a world saturated with attention-hijacking technologies.
What people celebrate and cherish is what shapes their emotions and behaviors. In relationships, shared ultimate aims are necessary. He provides the example of dating, where two partners flourish together if they share the same goal, such as mutual and family development through marriage. If their aims conflict—one partner seeking only short-term gratification while the other longs for a committed relationship—dysfunction results. Peterson highlights that marriage and the shared aim of raising a family form the societal foundation that religious narratives support.
Sequence of Human Development: Love, Parenthood, Grandparenthood, Wisdom
Peterson and Pageau discuss the proper pattern of human development: beginning with young love, leading to parenthood, and then grandparenthood, where the focus is on wisdom and the next generation. The appropriate progression fosters meaning, peace, and enduring civilization. Deviation from this sequence—such as competing with younger people for attention or romantic partners—leads to bitterness, chaos, and soci ...
Here’s what you’ll find in our full summary
Religious Traditions as Codifications of Proper Value Structures
Additional Materials
Counterarguments
- Many secular philosophies and ethical systems (e.g., humanism, consequentialism) also provide robust value structures that foster human flourishing without reliance on religious traditions.
- The claim that biblical narratives uniquely or optimally guide individuals toward meaning is contested; other religious and cultural traditions offer different, sometimes conflicting, frameworks for meaning and flourishing.
- The emphasis on self-sacrifice as the highest form of meaning may overlook the importance of self-care, personal autonomy, and individual fulfillment, which are also valued in many societies.
- Serving oneself does not necessarily lead to narcissism or isolation; healthy self-interest can coexist with community involvement and altruism.
- The assertion that the United States historically embodied benevolent self-sacrifice is debated; critics point to historical injustices and self-interested policies that contradict this narrative.
- The idea that lack of appreciation for sacrifice indicates a pathological aim may not account for cultural differences in how sacrifice and recognition are understood.
- Rituals and hymns can have intrinsic value for participants, independent of their connection to a transcendent aim.
- Relationships can flourish despite differing ultimate aims, provided there is mutual respect, communication, and compromise.
- The prescribed sequence of human development (love, parenthood, grandparenthood) does not reflect the diversity of life paths and family structures found in modern societies.
- Older adults participating in activities typically associated with youth is not inherently pathological and can contribute to intergenerational understanding and vitality.
- Hierarchie ...
Actionables
- You can set a weekly intention by writing down a specific, meaningful goal that benefits others—such as helping a family member, supporting a friend, or volunteering for a neighbor—and then reflect at the end of the week on how this action contributed to a sense of purpose and connection.
- A practical way to align your daily focus with a higher aim is to create a visual reminder (like a sticky note or phone wallpaper) that represents your chosen ultimate value—such as a symbol for service, wisdom, or community—and use it to guide your decisions and attention throughout the day.
- You can strengthen shared aims in your closest relationship ...
Get access to the context and additional materials
Create Summaries for anything on the web
Download the Shortform Chrome extension for your browser
