#2562 - Dan McClellan

The study of ancient biblical texts is a continually evolving field, propelled by new manuscript discoveries and refined academic methods. Textual criticism, comparative linguistics, and manuscript archaeology have fundamentally changed our understanding of the origins and development of biblical writings, revealing their complex transmission and adaptation over centuries and across cultures.

Earliest Biblical Manuscripts Reveal Differences, Aiding Reconstruction of Original Scripture

Dead Sea Scrolls: Oldest Biblical Texts, Fundamentally Changed Understanding

The Dead Sea Scrolls, discovered in 1947 near Qumran, are the oldest known biblical manuscripts and have revolutionized biblical scholarship. Their accidental discovery by a Bedouin herder led to a series of archaeological expeditions, supported by the newly established state of Israel, which yielded a wealth of ancient manuscripts. These texts have provided unprecedented insight into how certain biblical verses originally read, which verses might have been later additions, and even entire paragraphs that had been omitted from later manuscripts. For instance, fragments among the Dead Sea Scrolls include stories and references related to Daniel and Nabonidus that do not appear in the canonical Book of Daniel, giving evidence of the editing process and suggesting the book was assembled from various traditions.

The scrolls are invaluable for reconstructing the earliest possible version of the Hebrew Bible, shedding light on the evolution and transmission of the text. While Ethiopian manuscripts have little value for text-critical reconstruction due to their late date, the Dead Sea Scrolls offer ancient readings that highlight both textual variants and later editorial additions.

Modern Translations Removed KJV Verses Due to Newer Manuscripts

Textual discoveries since the translation of the King James Version (KJV) have had significant impacts on modern Bible translations. Over the past century, hundreds of new manuscripts have surfaced, enabling scholars to compare variant readings and to determine more reliably what the earliest stages of the biblical texts may have looked like. As a result, more than a dozen verses that appear in the KJV have been removed from most modern New Testament translations. For example, in Matthew 17, verse 21 is absent from some very old manuscripts and was later added by scribes, borrowing from a parallel story in Mark 9. Modern editions either omit these verses or include them in the footnotes, explaining that they come from later manuscripts. Another prominent example is the post-resurrection appearance of Jesus in Mark 16:9-20, which is bracketed or footnoted in contemporary translations as a later addition not found in the earliest manuscripts.

Determining Original Biblical Passages Through Textual Criticism

These removals and the broader project of reconstructing the original biblical text rely on textual criticism—a systematic comparison of manuscripts to identify additions, omissions, and scribal changes. Notably, the discovery of marginal notes and later insertions in ancient manuscripts such as Codex Sinaiticus illustrate how scribes incrementally altered the biblical text over the centuries. Although some readers object to these changes, preferring the traditional KJV, the explosion of available manuscript evidence allows translators to produce versions closer to the intended text of the earliest authors.

Studying Hebrew, Aramaic, and Ugaritic Together for Biblical and Near Eastern Contexts

Emergence of Alphabetic Writing From Hieroglyphics to Modern Alphabets

The development of alphabetic writing systems is closely linked to the history of ancient biblical texts. Early writing systems, like Egyptian hieroglyphics, served as syllabic, ideographic, or logographic scripts, each symbol representing a syllable, word, or idea. The breakthrough to alphabets came when symbols started representing single sounds, beginning with inscriptions in the Sinai, where the symbol for "house" ("bait") stood for the "b" sound.

The Phoenician alphabet, derived from these early scripts, became the ancestor of most alphabets in use today, spreading widely except for scripts like Korean Hangul, which is a much later invention but similarly phonetic.

Ugaritic: Ancient Syrian Texts Illuminate Biblical Deities and Rituals

Another vital language for biblical scholarship is Ugaritic, written in a unique, alphabetic cuneiform script discovered at Ugarit on the Syrian coast in 1929. Over a thousand Ugaritic texts have been recovered, providing key evidence for understanding Northwest Semitic language evolution and religious traditions. Ugaritic shares deities with the Hebrew Bible—such as El, Baal, and Asherah—and its texts capture cultic rituals and stories parallel to biblical ones. For example, the Ugaritic myth of Baal battling Mot (death) includes references to Lotan—the antecedent of the biblical Leviathan. The wording in Ugaritic describing the "wriggling and twisting serpent" is identical to biblical Hebrew. These similarities suggest that poetic motifs and mythological themes circulated widely before being absorbed into biblical literature, as seen in passages like Isaiah and Psalm 74.

Complexity Of Translating Ancient to Modern Languages

Translating ancient languages like Hebrew, Aramaic, and Ugaritic into modern ones is complex, often resulting in misunderstandings of the original text. Concepts, grammar, and cultural connotations can be vastly different, making literal translation challenging or even misleading. For example, readers may overestimate their understanding by relying on interlinear or online word-for-word tools, not realizing the depth of nuance "under the hood." Fluency in modern Hebrew helps with pronunciation, but interpreting ancient Hebrew requires specialized academic knowledge.

To study the Hebrew Bible, competence in related Semitic languages—such as Aramaic and Ugaritic—is crucial. Each language reveals subtle shifts in grammar, meaning, and religious ideas that shaped the biblical world and its neighboring cultures.

Hebrew Bible Composed Between Eighth and Fifth Centuries BCE

Biblical Narratives Written During Crises Like Assyrian Occupation and Babylonian Exile, Adapting Surrounding Cultures' Stories

The composition of the Hebrew Bible spanned the 8th to 5th centuries BCE, a period marked by foreign domination and cultural upheaval. Much of Genesis, for instance, reflects stories circulating in Babylon during the exile and in Assyria during Israel's subjugation. Rather than borrowing directly from ancient Sumerian or early oral traditions, the biblical authors adapted versions of these myths that were current in Babylon and Assyria, tailoring them to the needs and interests of the Judean community. Historical prose narratives in the Bible appear only after the development of alphabetic scripts in the 9th century BCE, with older material typic ...

Christian theology, as explained by Dan McClellan, is far from static. Foundational doctrines such as hell, original sin, and even teachings about salvation and gender revealed significant evolution, reinterpretation, and harmonization over time in response to changing contexts.

Hell Evolved Over Centuries and Was Not Central in Original Hebrew Bible Teachings on Divine Punishment and Justice

Earliest Hebrew Scripture References to Post-Mortem Punishment Are Metaphorical

The earliest mentions of post-mortem punishment in the Hebrew Bible are metaphorical, not clear doctrines of hell. For instance, Isaiah's final verse describes “a fire that doesn’t go out and a worm that never dies.” Scholars note this likely referred to an ever-burning garbage heap (Gehenna) outside Jerusalem, where refuse and criminal bodies burned continually. The fire remains unquenched and the worm undying because new bodies (wicked oppressors) are continually consigned there. The intent was metaphorical: persistent justice against Israel’s enemies, not a literal, eternal torment for all sinners.

Three New Testament Views on Punishment: Annihilation, Temporary Torment, Eternal Torment

In the New Testament, the concept of hell develops further and diversifies. Its references to "Gehenna" echo the Isaiah motif but acquire new meanings. Three major views appear among authors:

• Annihilation: The wicked simply cease to exist.
• Temporary Conscious Torment: Punishment lasts for a set period, after which one either gains salvation or is annihilated.
• Eternal Conscious Torment: The condemned are tortured forever.

This diversity shows no single, unified doctrine of post-mortem punishment at the New Testament’s origin.

Medieval Theologians and the Doctrine of Hell

It is only by late antiquity and the Middle Ages, particularly under Augustine, that the doctrine of hell as universal threat solidifies. Originally, hell was for outsiders—enemies of the faithful—while the in-group was automatically saved. Later, the threat of hell became universal: everyone faces damnation unless they meet specific doctrinal requirements. Thus, hell shifted from a metaphorical warning to a systematic central doctrine of post-biblical Christianity, applied as a form of social control.

"Original Sin & Adam and Eve: From Minor Hebrew Bible Themes to Core Christian Theology"

Adam and Eve Not Repeated In Hebrew Bible, Not Key to Ancient Israelites; Christian Sin Origin Represents Major Theological Shift

McClellan emphasizes that Adam and Eve’s story barely appears in the Hebrew Bible after its initial telling in Genesis. Apart from a genealogical mention and an unclear reference in Ezekiel (the “mountain of Eden”—absent from Genesis), the ancient Israelites did not see Adam and Eve as central explanations for evil or sin. Christian doctrine later elevated the story, making it foundational and attributing the fallen state of humanity to original sin via the “tree of knowledge” myth.

Origin of Evil Attributed To Rebellious Angels Competing With Adam and Eve Account

In the intertestamental period (as in 1 Enoch), the prevalent Jewish explanation for evil focused not on Adam and Eve, but on rebellious angels—“sons of God” in Genesis 6—who descended, consorted with human women, and imparted forbidden knowledge (including weapon-making and cosmetics). This demonic teaching became the main story of evil’s origin until later Christians prioritized the Genesis account, often blaming Eve and women in general for evil and disorder.

Belief in Exclusive Salvation Through Jesus Isn't Explicitly Biblical but Stems From Later Interpretations Harmonizing Conflicting Passages

Popular Christian claims that all who do not follow Jesus are doomed to hell have little direct biblical support and reflect post-biblical interpretive traditions. McClellan points out that nowhere does the New Testament explicitly state “believe in Jesus or burn forever.” Some New Testament writers might have endorsed exclusive salvation, but the New Testament itself remains inconsistent and ambiguous. The rigid doctrine of exclusive salvation came later, as the church tried to harmonize conflicting passages and create a unified “second-order story” for the tradition.

Paul's Advocacy For Celibacy and Jesus's Imminent Return, Later Abandoned Due to Delayed Second Coming, Shows Theological Shifts

Paul Advised Against Marriage Due to Jesus's Imminent Return, Making Long-Term Planning Unnecessary

In the genuine epistles, Paul urges celibacy or, if abstinence is unbearable, minimal marital sex. His reasoning is the imminent return of Jesus—the “parousia”—which would render earthly, long-term plans like marriage, procreation, and property irrelevant.

Authors, Writing Under Paul's Name, Declared Women Achieve Salvation Through Childbearing to Help Early Christianity Avoid Extinction

When the expected return did not materialize, new theological solutions followed. Epistles written in Paul’s name decades later (lik ...

Human cognition is largely unconscious, shaping not just how people perceive the world but also how they interpret information, texts, and their loyalties to groups. Dan McClellan and Joe Rogan discuss the mechanisms and consequences of these invisible cognitive processes, from basic illusions to the perpetuation of ideologies and group divisions.

Cognition Largely Operates Unconsciously, Shaping Perception, Text Interpretation, and Group Loyalty

People do not experience the world in an "unmediated way." Evolution has equipped humans with perceptual lenses based on past experience, favoring survival and social integration. This results in much of our cognition operating outside conscious control, guiding both our perceptions and beliefs.

Illusions Show Brain Constructs Perception Through Learned Expectations

McClellan demonstrates the Cornsweet illusion: two areas appear to be different shades of gray, but covering their border with a finger shows they are identical. The brain, basing judgment on a lifetime of experience—knowing that sunlit objects look lighter and shaded ones darker—constructs a perception that fits expectations, rather than presenting objective reality. He explains, "You've got someone rifling through the mail of your senses," referencing the intuitive mind, which alters experiences when they do not match expectations.

Phantom Limb Pain Relieved by Mirror Tricks Shows Cognition's Power Over Physical Reality

McClellan relates a story of a device that relieves phantom limb pain by tricking the brain. By placing a mirror so the real hand’s reflection replaces the missing limb, patients can "see" themselves unclenching a fist, which causes the brain-created pain to dissipate—even though intellectually, they know it is a trick. This exemplifies the mind's power over not just perception, but even physical sensation.

Commitments to Beliefs Are Sustained Like Illusions, Impervious to Rational Argument

Just as with the Cornsweet illusion or phantom pain, commitments to personal beliefs function like deeply ingrained illusions; they remain largely impervious to rational argument. The mind works to protect these commitments, often by unconsciously influencing what evidence is accepted.

Cognitive Processes: Decoupling Vs. Rationalization in Conflicting Beliefs

Cognitive science identifies two responses when intuitive and reflective cognition conflict. Decoupling occurs when reflective cognition overrides intuitive reactions, such as when late-night fear is dismissed by reasoning ("it’s just the furnace"). But more often, rationalization takes over—using reason to defend intuitive, instinctive positions, even when those positions aren't justified by evidence. This process can convince people their instincts were correct all along.

People are especially likely to rationalize, not decouple, when core identities or in-group beliefs are questioned. Once committed to a side, as McClellan notes about jury selection, people can become almost impossible to persuade—rational arguments don’t get through when intuitive allegiance is at stake.

In-group Identity and Parochial Empathy Hinder Objective Interpretation of Information

Human empathy evolved in the context of in-groups. As McClellan explains, empathy is strongest for those considered part of one’s group; pain felt by insiders is perceived personally, while the suffering of outsiders may be ignored or even provoke satisfaction. This is called parochial empathy.

Empathy Evolved Within Groups; Humans Feel Group Members' Pain but May Ignore Outsiders' Suffering

McClellan gives the example of Neanderthals caring for severely disabled individuals, showing group-based empathy crucial for survival. However, he calls the refusal to extend empathy beyond the group "the most toxic kind," as it harshly excludes others.

Ideologies Exploit Empathy by Demonizing Outsiders, Creating Boundaries Between Worthy Insiders and Unworthy Outsiders to Justify Exclusion, Punishment, or Violence

This boundary of empathy is ripe for ideological exploitation. McCle ...

Religion operates as a powerful social institution, shaping collective behavior, establishing moral frameworks, and wielding significant influence over societal ethics—often for both cohesion and control.

Religion Establishes Social Order By Creating a Supernatural Authority Monitoring Behavior

Brains Are Prone to Detect Agency, Leading To Perceiving Divine Presence and Forming Bonds With Unseen Entities, Especially In Uncertainty or Distress

Humans have evolved brains highly sensitive to agency in their environment. Ancient primates who interpreted ambiguous stimuli, like rustling in bushes, as the presence of a threat survived longer, so modern humans are predisposed to see agency—sometimes where none exists. This trait manifests in moments of fear or uncertainty, such as feeling watched after a horror movie or sensing a hidden presence in the dark. Over time, this inclination extends to fostering perceived relationships with unseen entities, including deceased relatives or deities, especially during distress.

Covert Monitor as Deity: A Tool for Ethical Behavior Through Perceived Surveillance

Religions take advantage of this innate human instinct by positing an ever-watchful supernatural authority—a deity who covertly monitors individual behavior. This belief exerts powerful social control, establishing ethical norms by warning of divine punishment for noncompliance. Once leaders claim authority over interpreting the will of this covert monitor, they gain significant influence, able to dictate social norms and punish those deemed nonconforming by invoking divine surveillance.

Shared Rituals, Signals, and Divine Belief Foster Societal Cooperation and Trust

By promoting shared rituals, signals, and communal beliefs in the divine, religions enhance group identity, foster societal cooperation, and cement mutual trust among adherents. The perception of a supernatural observer reinforces ethical conduct, while collective practices help build social bonds and cultivate goodwill within the community.

Prophets and Jesus: Justice, Mercy, Care For Vulnerable Over Ritual

God's Preference For Justice Over Sacrifices in the Hebrew Bible

Within the Judaic prophetic tradition, a recurring theme is what scholars call the "prophetic critique." God, through the prophets, denounces hollow ritualism. Passages in Isaiah, Micah, and Amos see God rejecting the very sacrifices and observances previously commanded, demanding instead justice, mercy, and righteousness from worshippers. The message is clear: ethical treatment of the vulnerable is prioritized over ritual performance.

Jesus Emphasized Economic Justice and Care For the Poor Over Tithing on Minor Herbs, Criticizing Religious Leaders For Neglecting Mercy, Justice, and Righteousness

Jesus continues this prophetic tradition, criticizing religious leaders who focus on scrupulous tithing of minor herbs while neglecting "the weightier matters of the law": mercy, justice, and righteousness. He challenges displays of piety intended for public acclaim when those same individuals ignore collective obligations like supporting the poor or welcoming immigrants. The ethical standard is ensuring a society where people are not disadvantaged simply by the circumstances of their birth.

New Testament: Pray In Secret for True Religious Authenticity

The New Testament presses the point that true religious authenticity is found in private devotion, not public displays of piety. Jesus teaches that when you pray, do so in secret, not as "hypocrites" seeking human approval. This inward focus opposes using religion for personal gain or public status while neglecting the true substance of religious teaching.

The Gap Between Christian Values and Practice Shows how Religious Ethics Can Serve Power Rather Than the Vulnerable

Though the U.S. often claims a Christian identity, there is a striking divergence between professed values and practice. Joe Rogan notes the long-term neglect of inner cities: poverty, crime, and social decay persist in areas ignored for decades, which contradicts Christian ethics centered on aiding the vulnerable. These issues are rarely a central concern in political discourse or plans for ...

Biblical Narratives Shaped by Ancient Near Eastern Cultural Interactions

The biblical stories are deeply influenced by the rich cultural exchanges of the ancient Near East. Dan McClellan highlights the Kontilladaj Rude inscription, discovered near the Sinai Peninsula, which consists of fragments from a jar dating to about 800 BCE. This artifact features an inscription with a drawing of a male and a female deity, likely based on Egyptian iconographic motifs, particularly those associated with Bess and Beset, which make them appear somewhat bovine in the face. The deities' headdresses further signal their divine status. The inscription references blessings by "Adonai of Shomron" or "Jehovah of Samaria," and his Asherah—interpreted by most scholars as the God of Israel with his consort, Asherah, reflecting the religious themes of Israel and the neighboring Levant.

Animal worship, particularly of cattle, was widespread throughout ancient Near Eastern religions and often reflected Egyptian influence due to geographic proximity and Egypt’s longstanding political control over the region. Artifacts, such as royal bullae bearing Egyptian iconography, show how Israelite religious symbolism was adapted in response to their Egyptian neighbors, rather than invented in isolation.

Asherah’s recurring role beside Yahweh in inscriptions and iconography further illustrates how Israelite traditions incorporated beliefs from their Levantine neighbors, reinforcing the idea that much of their religious narrative is a blend of inherited, adapted, and syncretic elements, not solitary revelations.

Sumerian Language Influenced Later Biblical Narratives

Sumerian, the language of early Mesopotamia, stands as an isolated linguistic phenomenon—unconnected to any other known language families, with mysterious origins and a final disappearance after its decline. Its direct influence on later languages such as Hebrew or Greek is refuted by scholars; leading linguists have discredited John Marco Allegro’s theory that Christian concepts sprang from Sumerian origins through etymology, since neither Hebrew nor Greek descend from Sumerian.

Nonetheless, Sumerian literature’s legacy endures. Ancient king lists and epics, written in Sumerian centuries before the Bible, shaped subsequent cultural output. McClellan notes that the survival of their texts often depended on the paradoxical effects of disasters—such as library fires that baked and preserved clay tablets. Without such accidents, much ancient wisdom might have been lost to history.

Comparing Biblical Flood Narratives To Earlier Mesopotamian Versions Shows Literary Borrowing and Adaptation, Not Independent Divine Revelation

The flood story in the Hebrew Bible is not an isolated account but part of a well-attested tradition across the ancient Near East. The oldest Sumerian king lists, which catalog kings with fantastically long lifespans, originally made no mention of a flood. It is only in later, secondary versions of the king lists—around the early third millennium BCE—that a flood narrative appears, which scholars estimate was added long after the original lists.

McClellan explains that many scholars believe Genesis circulated without a flood story until the sixth or fifth century BCE, with the tale inserted during the exile. This is reflected in internal biblical contradictions, where ancestors like the progenitor of tent-dwellers or metalworkers should have perished in the flood yet are referenced as founders of living traditions.

The Epic of Gilgamesh and the Atrahasis legend, along with biblical accounts, share core elements—a chosen survivor, instructions to build a vessel, the saving of animals, and the repopulation of earth post-destruction—demonstrating clearly that the flood narrative was borrowed and adapted, not divinely and independently revealed. The Hebrew Bible’s omission, in earlier traditions, of a world-destroying flood that spares one family further suggests that this major biblical motif was a late editorial addition.

Additionally, ties between Moses' narrative and the birth legend of Sargon the Great—both involving a baby set adrift in a container on a river—underscore how biblical writers incorporated well-known cultura ...