Selects: How Peanut Butter Works

Peanuts Originated In South America and Became a U.S. Staple After Global Spread

Archaeological evidence from Peru shows that peanuts were cultivated and had cultural significance as far back as 7,600 years ago. The findings include traces of peanut farming as well as depictions of peanuts in artwork and pottery, signifying their importance in early societies.

When Spanish and Portuguese conquistadors arrived in South and Central America, they found peanuts growing as far north as Mexico. Their first encounter, however, was in the Caribbean. The Spanish brought peanuts back to Spain, and these were then spread throughout Europe, the Philippines, and China. The Portuguese also played a major role, introducing peanuts to India and Africa. Through these global trade networks, peanuts began to be farmed on multiple continents, making them a favorite crop worldwide.

A unique twist in peanut history is its circuitous return to the Americas. The word “goober,” commonly used in the American South for peanuts, is derived from a Congolese (or Kongo) word. Peanuts were reintroduced to the Americas from Africa via the West African slave trade. This journey highlights the interconnectedness of the crop’s history and how much its American identity owes to African diasporic influence.

From Livestock Feed to Valued Crop: Peanuts' Rise From the Civil War Onward

Peanuts were not grown commercially in the United States until 1842, starting in Virginia for oil, food, and as a cocoa substitute. At this point, peanuts were considered a lowly crop, primarily fed to livestock and eaten by those who couldn’t afford better options. This perception was partly due to their use for oil (even machinery lubrication), making the idea of eating the same peanuts used in machine oil unappetizing. Additionally, the inability to efficiently harvest, shell, and clean peanuts meant the product was often poor quality—further entrenching its reputation as livestock feed or food for the poor.

The Civil War helped shift attitudes. Union and Confederate soldiers alike consumed large quantities of Southern peanuts, discovering their flavor and utility. After the war, peanuts became increasingly common as a snack. P.T. Barnum’s circus sold hot roasted peanuts, making them popular in the “peanut gallery,” the cheap seats of the circus, where patrons would throw peanuts if displeased. This brought the snack to street corners and baseball games, cementing its association with leisure and entertainment—but quality was still limited by labor-intensive, inefficient processing.

Early 20th Century: Two African Americans Transform Peanuts Through Innovation

George Washington Carver, often called the “father of the peanut,” was instrumental in the crop’s transformation. Carver promoted peanuts as a replacement for cotton, which had depleted Southern soils and suffered infestations from the boll weevil. Carver developed more than 300 uses for peanuts, boosting their agricultural and economic value across the South, though he did not invent peanut butter.

At the same time, Benjamin Hicks of Virginia revolutionized peanut farming by inventing a gas-powered peanut cleaning and stemming machine, patented in 1901. Despite challenges from larger agricultural companies, Hicks successfully modernized the process, making quality peanuts more widely available. The combined efforts of Carver and Hicks led to a boom in demand for peanuts in food, oil, and candy, driving widespread adoption and consumption of the crop.

Peanut Butter: Invented In Canada, Perfected As an American Staple

Modern peanut butter originated with Canadian Marcellus Gilmore Edson, who patented a peanut ...

Hydrogenation Revolutionized Peanut Butter Production By Creating Shelf-Stable Products

Hydrogenation represents a turning point for peanut butter, nearly as significant as its invention. The process involves taking oils that are liquid at room temperature and infusing them with hydrogen using a catalyst like powdered nickel. This chemical reaction saturates the bonds in the unsaturated fat molecules, converting liquid oils into solids. As a result, the fat molecules stick together more easily, transforming natural peanut butter, which often has a layer of separated oil, into a shelf-stable spread where oil and solids stay blended.

This advance improved peanut butter in several ways. It made the product creamier and easier to spread, reducing the need for stirring—a convenience appreciated by consumers. Additionally, hydrogenation provided a significant boost to shelf life by preventing oxidation. With fewer open bonds in the saturated fats, oxygen cannot easily react with the peanut butter, which means it is less likely to develop rancid flavors. This allowed peanut butter to last much longer on store shelves.

Despite these benefits, hydrogenation comes with nutritional drawbacks. It converts the naturally monounsaturated fats in peanuts—considered heart-healthy—into saturated or partially saturated fats, which are associated with raising cholesterol levels and increasing cardiovascular risk. The process ultimately favors shelf stability and ease of use over maintaining the original nutritional value of peanuts.

First National Brand Peter Pan Emerged In 1928 Using Joseph Rosefield's Patented Hydrogenation Process, Establishing Market Dominance Until Challenged

Peter Pan became the first major national peanut butter brand in 1928, using Joseph Rosefield's patented partial hydrogenation process. This innovation allowed Peter Pan to offer a smooth and shelf-stable product that quickly secured market dominance. Early sales were driven not just by the product's improved texture and longevity, but also by aggressive marketing strategies. For example, the brand’s jingle—"Eat some peanut butter anytime you can, but only if it's Peter Pan"—reflected advertising styles of the early- to mid-twentieth century. It encouraged brand loyalty and stood out for its competitive, almost coercive message, suggesting that no other peanut butter was worth eating.

Peter Pan maintained industry leadership until 1955, when Joseph Rosefield ended his licensing agreement with Peter Pan’s parent company following a dispute over fees and launched a new competitor, Skippy.

Skippy, Founded by Joseph Rosefield In 1955, Led the Peanut Butter Industry From 1950-1980 Through Innovation, Product Development, and Employee Relations

By creating Skippy, Rosefield broke away from corporate control and directly challenged Peter Pan’s dominance. His innovations continued with the introduction of crunchy peanut butter, which incorporated larger peanut pieces to cater to varied consumer preferences and widened the category.

Rosefield was also known as an ethical leader who treated his workers well, offering good wages and cultivating a positive company environment. Under his leadership, Skippy emerged as the top-selling peanut butter from the 1950s through 1980. Skippy's growth reflected both product innovation and a shift in market power, as the brand distinguished itself from competitors and responded to changing consumer tastes. By the mid-twentieth century and through the 1970s, Skippy led the market, though its dominance was later challenged by new entrants.

Jif Became a Competitor After Procter & Gamble Acquired Big Top Peanut and Held It Until 2002, When Ownership Transferred To Smuckers

A major shift in the peanut butter industry occurred in 1955 when Procter & Gamble acquired Big Top Peanut from William T. You ...

The regulation of peanut butter in the United States is shaped by federal actions, industry negotiations, and specific product standards established and enforced by regulatory agencies.

Fda Hearings: Establish Federal Peanut Butter Standards

In the 1960s, the FDA responded to concerns about declining peanut content in leading peanut butter brands. For instance, one prominent brand, likely Jif, contained only 75% peanuts, with the remainder composed of oils, sweeteners, and additives. This shift prompted the FDA to intervene, declaring that such formulations had transformed peanut butter into a junk food, rather than a legitimate nut spread.

The peanut industry pushed back, lobbying for a compromise minimum of 87% peanuts in peanut butter. However, the FDA stood firm and chose to set the standard at a minimum of 90% peanuts. This compromise became federal law in 1971 and enforcement began in 1972, establishing that all products labeled as “peanut butter” must contain at least 90% peanuts—a standard still in effect today.

Texture Standards For Peanut Butter Varieties Established by Regulations

Federal regulations also define the allowable textures for different types of peanut butter to ensure consistent quality and consumer expectation:

• Smooth Peanut Butter: This variety must have a very fine, uniform texture with absolutely no perceptible graininess. The product needs to be thoroughly blended, appealing to consumers who prefer a homogenous, creamy spread.
• Medium Peanut Butter: Medium-textured peanut butter is permitted to include small grain particles, but these must not exceed one-sixteenth of an inch in size. This maintains a predominantly smooth feel while allowing for a slight textural variation.
• Crunchy Peanut Butter: Crunchy peanut butter, first developed by Joseph Rosefield, the founder of Skippy, is allowed to have peanut pieces larger than one-sixteenth of an inch. This results in a notably textured product with visible and palpable peanut bits, catering to those who enjoy a heartier experience.

Usda Uses Color Standards and Testing to Grade Peanut Butter

The USDA further grades peanut butter based on color and overall quality, assigning ratings of Grade A, Grade B, or substandard. To standardize color grading, manufacturers must obtain official color reference samples from ...

This Is a Heading: Nutrient-Rich Natural Peanut Butter Offers Health Benefits When Consumed In Moderation

Natural peanut butter provides a dense supply of micronutrients. In 100 grams, it offers 45% of the recommended daily allowance (RDA) of vitamin E, 67% of vitamin B3, 73% of manganese, and 39% of magnesium. Beyond these, peanut butter contains numerous antioxidants and additional nutrients, contributing to its reputation as a healthful food.

The fats present in natural, non-hydrogenated peanut butter are primarily monounsaturated, the type known to support heart health and help control cholesterol levels. In contrast, shelf-stable peanut butters containing hydrogenated fats have higher saturated fat content, which can contribute to arterial plaque, heart attacks, and strokes. Natural peanut butter, by comparison, is seen as promoting better cholesterol profiles and supporting cardiovascular health.

Despite its nutritional strengths, peanut butter is calorie-dense, with about 600 calories in a 100-gram serving. While this high energy content can be beneficial for athletes and active individuals, it can present challenges for those seeking to lose weight. Moderation is key: while peanut butter is much more nutritious than many snack alternatives, its calorie content means it should be consumed thoughtfully.

Peanut Butter Contamination Raises Health Concerns, Reduces Consumer Confidence

The health reputation of peanut butter has at times been undermined by contamination incidents. In 2007, a salmonella outbreak traced to the Peter Pan and Great Value brands, both owned by ConAgra, resulted in over 600 reported illnesses, though fortunately there were no deaths. In 2009, a more severe incident occurred at a poorly maintained facility in Blakely, Georgia. This outbreak sickened 500 people and caused eight deaths. Because of peanut butter’s ubiquity, these events sparked widespread media coverage and alarmed consumers, temporarily reducing trust in peanut butter’s safety.

Aflatoxins: Health Risk From Aspergillus Mold on Peanuts Despite Processing Efforts

Peanuts, which grow underground, are susceptible to contamination by the mold Aspergillus. This mold produces aflatoxins, potent toxins that survive many processing steps and can make their way into peanut butter. While humans are largely resistant to aflatoxins’ acute short-term effects, long-term consequences of chronic, low-level exposure are less understood, with studies linking aflatoxins to cancers, cognitive disabilities, and other health issues.

Manufacturers manage to remove about 89% of aflatoxins during processing, but that leaves an estimated 11% in the final product. This residual risk is not fully addressed by regulators, leaving open questions about the cumulative health impact on consumers over a lifetime of peanut butter consumption.

Peanut Allergies Rose To 1.4% By 2008; Exact Rate Increase Unclear

Peanut allergies have received increasing attention over recent decades. National surveys show self-reported peanut allergy rates rose from 0 ...