Composting: Nature's Most Interesting Process

As of 2025, nearly one third of all food produced globally ends up wasted. This occurs at every level of the food system, from harvest to landfill. In this article, we’ll discuss two innovative solutions helping to combat this issue. We’ll also explore ways you can help reduce food waste.

After publishing Entangled Life in 2020, biologist Merlin Sheldrake made a meal out of two copies of the book. He dampened the pages of the first copy, inoculated it with fungal spores, and feasted on the mushrooms that burst from its pages. He then macerated the pages of the second copy and fermented them into a beer he drank.

Sheldrake’s process of transforming these copies of his book embodies the themes he explores throughout its chapters. He examines what we know and don’t yet know about fungi, these mysterious organisms that transform their surroundings—and us. He argues that fungi are an understudied group of organisms that expand our imaginations and offer promising solutions to modern-day problems such as mental illness and environmental destruction. In our guide, we’ll present Sheldrake’s insights into fungal biology and why fungi matter. Throughout our guide, we’ll supplement Sheldrake’s insights with recent research on fungi and offer steps you can take to contribute to our scientific understanding of fungi.

What do the food on your plate, the electricity that powers your home, and the plastic in everything from your clothes to your car have in common? They all require large amounts of fossil fuel.

In How the World Really Works, scientist Vaclav Smil argues that our current way of life relies so heavily on fossil fuels that the only way to reduce our dependence on them and slow down climate change is to do so gradually and at great expense. But we can’t engage in any intelligent discussion about how to solve the problem of climate change unless everyone has a shared understanding of how the world works.

In this guide, we’ll explore Smil’s ideas about the functioning of four critical aspects of our world: energy, food production, manufacturing, and the environment. Throughout the guide, we’ll compare Smil’s analyses to those of other experts and examine current research and potential solutions to the issue of climate change.

After publishing Entangled Life in 2020, biologist Merlin Sheldrake made a meal out of two copies of the book. He dampened the pages of the first copy, inoculated it with fungal spores, and feasted on the mushrooms that burst from its pages. He then macerated the pages of the second copy and fermented them into a beer he drank.

Sheldrake’s process of transforming these copies of his book embodies the themes he explores throughout its chapters. He examines what we know and don’t yet know about fungi, these mysterious organisms that transform their surroundings—and us. He argues that fungi are an understudied group of organisms that expand our imaginations and offer promising solutions to modern-day problems such as mental illness and environmental destruction. In our guide, we’ll present Sheldrake’s insights into fungal biology and why fungi matter. Throughout our guide, we’ll supplement Sheldrake’s insights with recent research on fungi and offer steps you can take to contribute to our scientific understanding of fungi.

When most people think of microbes, the first things that come to mind are disease-causing germs or healthy probiotic yogurts. We go about our lives largely unaware of the trillions of microbes on every surface and throughout our bodies. In his debut book, science journalist Ed Yong explores the mysterious and fascinating world of microbes: microscopic organisms with the ability to make sea creatures glow, eradicate diseases, and nudge ecosystems into disarray.

He argues that not only are microbes ubiquitous, but they’re also integral to animal bodies (including humans)—although we often think of ourselves as individuals, we’re essentially walking ecosystems containing countless species of microbes living in symbiotic partnership with us. He contends that by understanding the ways that we’re interdependent with microbes, we can then explore opportunities to use microbes to improve our health. And since our understanding of microbes is constantly shifting, our guide will also update Yong’s examples and dive deeper into the health implications of microbial phenomena.

Why does life work the way it does? Are life’s features the product of random genetic mutations, or did organisms have to evolve a certain way to overcome specific physical and chemical challenges? In The Vital Question, Nick Lane argues that genetics can’t give us the answer by itself. To explain the origin of life, we have to understand how cells make use of energy and what environmental conditions gave rise to the molecular power plants found in every living thing.

In this guide, we’ll explore the biochemistry of cells and how it may have developed on the very young Earth. We’ll explain why Lane believes all complex life emerged from a single instance of symbiosis between two very different single-celled creatures. We’ll expand on fundamentals of biology and genetics, discuss alternate views to some of Lane’s proposals, and point to the directions research is now taking to gain a fuller understanding of life’s origins.

After publishing Entangled Life in 2020, biologist Merlin Sheldrake made a meal out of two copies of the book. He dampened the pages of the first copy, inoculated it with fungal spores, and feasted on the mushrooms that burst from its pages. He then macerated the pages of the second copy and fermented them into a beer he drank.

Sheldrake’s process of transforming these copies of his book embodies the themes he explores throughout its chapters. He examines what we know and don’t yet know about fungi, these mysterious organisms that transform their surroundings—and us. He argues that fungi are an understudied group of organisms that expand our imaginations and offer promising solutions to modern-day problems such as mental illness and environmental destruction. In our guide, we’ll present Sheldrake’s insights into fungal biology and why fungi matter. Throughout our guide, we’ll supplement Sheldrake’s insights with recent research on fungi and offer steps you can take to contribute to our scientific understanding of fungi.

What if you could write so clearly that your reader could perfectly understand your main ideas within the first 30 seconds of reading your prose? In The Pyramid Principle, writing expert Barbara Minto claims this is possible. She argues that the secret to clear, effective writing is beginning with your conclusions. She envisions strong writing to be structured like a pyramid, with conclusions at the peak and supporting evidence branching out beneath.

In this guide, we’ll present Minto’s approach to writing. You’ll learn how to…

• Plan out your ideas before you begin writing
• Sequence your ideas logically
• Write a clear, compelling introduction, body, and conclusion

Throughout our guide, we’ll compare Minto’s ideas to those of other writing experts, such as William Zinsser. We’ll also explore some of the brain science behind Minto’s ideas. Furthermore, we’ll supplement Minto’s strategies with additional actionable ideas, such as how to enhance your nonfiction writing using techniques from fiction writing and poetry.

Are trees competitive or cooperative? In Finding the Mother Tree, ecologist Suzanne Simard delves into this question. Scientists and foresters have typically thought of trees as competing for water, sunlight, and nutrients, and they’ve favored growing marketable species while eliminating presumed competitors. However, ecologist Suzanne Simard explains in Finding the Mother Tree that trees in a forest are interconnected—they communicate and share resources through a complex underground network of fungi.

In this guide, we’ll show how Simard’s research has led to a shift in thinking about ecological relationships. We’ll explain how fungi work to connect the plant life in the forests, how “Mother Trees” take care of their communities and their offspring, and why the prevailing competition paradigm is shortsighted. Throughout, we’ll look at other research that supports or challenges Simard’s findings and discuss how this “new” paradigm of cooperation is not new at all—it’s been the prevailing model for understanding nature among indigenous peoples throughout history.