Greely Arctic Expedition | Farthest North | 1
In this episode of American History Tellers, the first part of the Greely Arctic Expedition series explores the 1881 U.S. mission to establish a research station at Lady Franklin Bay, deep within the Arctic Circle. The episode covers the expedition's origins, including Henry Howgate's successful push to link Arctic exploration with national weather forecasting, and the political obstacles that nearly derailed the mission before departure.
The episode examines life at Fort Conger under Lieutenant Adolphus Greeley's command, including tensions between officers and enlisted men, strategies to maintain morale during the prolonged polar night, and the expedition's scientific objectives. It also details the team's success in setting a new record for farthest northern latitude reached, alongside the critical failure of the 1882 relief ship that left Greeley's crew dangerously short of supplies as they faced a second Arctic winter with dwindling resources.
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1-Page Summary
Expedition Planning and Funding
Howgate Linked Arctic Exploration and Meteorology to Secure U.S. Research Station
In the late 1870s, Henry Howgate of the Signal Corps pushed Congress to fund a U.S. Arctic research station, arguing that understanding Arctic climate patterns would improve national weather forecasting. As European nations pledged to establish their own Arctic research stations in a new era of collaborative science, Howgate seized the opportunity. In early 1880, Congress authorized a U.S. research station at Lady Franklin Bay on Ellesmere Island, deep within the Arctic Circle.
Lincoln's Indifference Delayed Funds, Nearly Derailed Mission
After President Garfield appointed Robert Todd Lincoln as Secretary of War, the expedition faced new obstacles. Lincoln dismissed Arctic exploration as wasteful and withheld authorization and funds. By spring 1881, expedition leader Adolphus Greeley worried the summer departure window was closing. At his wife Henrietta's suggestion, Greeley reframed the mission as both scientific research and a search for the missing USS Jeanette crew, appealing to Lincoln's sense of national responsibility. Lincoln relented, authorizing the mission with the added search objective.
Howgate's Embezzlement Eliminates Expedition's Political Champion At Critical Moment
Just as the expedition gained approval, disaster struck. In December 1880, Howgate resigned after investigators discovered he'd been embezzling Signal Corps funds for years. His downfall left Greeley without his primary political champion precisely when he faced growing opposition from Lincoln, threatening the expedition's viability.
Leadership and Personnel Management
Greeley's Tension With Officers Resenting Strict Arctic Protocol Enforcement
At Fort Conger, Greeley enforced strict discipline, requiring all personnel to attend mandatory breakfast at 7:30 a.m. to promote unity. Lieutenant Frederick Kislingberry resented this rule, believing officers shouldn't be treated like enlisted men. His repeated absences led to confrontation, and Kislingberry threatened resignation. When the Proteus departed unexpectedly, Kislingberry was accidentally stranded, deepening the rift with Greeley.
Kislingberry's Grief and Isolation Compromised His Willingness to Accept Greeley's Authority
Kislingberry, a veteran of the Indian Wars, had joined the expedition seeking escape from personal grief after losing two wives in three years. His emotional wounds and professional pride made accepting Greeley's authority difficult, leaving him isolated and hampering his contributions to the group.
Greeley Used Strategies to Maintain Morale Against Psychological Effects of Prolonged Arctic Confinement
During the long polar night, Greeley worked to protect his men from isolation's psychological toll. He provided games, musical instruments, magazines, and books for recreation. Greeley and Dr. Povee gave educational lectures, while Lieutenant Lockwood edited a fort newspaper, The Arctic Moon. Major holidays became festive events with feasts, rum rations, and competitions, fostering community spirit.
Greeley's Efforts Couldn't Prevent Psychological Decline During First Polar Night
Despite these initiatives, psychological distress mounted during five months of darkness. Many men experienced depression, irritability, arguments, and paranoia. The crisis peaked when one man fled into the wilderness at night, underscoring the extreme mental pressure despite Greeley's best efforts.
Scientific Mission and Exploration Goals
Expedition's Main Goal: Gather Daily Meteorological Measurements From the Northernmost Outpost
The expedition's primary mission involved taking approximately 500 meteorological measurements daily and collecting samples of plants, animals, and minerals. As part of an international Arctic initiative, teams at two observation huts recorded temperature, humidity, snow depth, wind speed, and even measured Earth's gravity fluctuations using a 100-pound brass pendulum. This data supported comparable polar climate research alongside other nations' Arctic research stations.
Greeley's Record-Breaking Northern Latitude Ambition Energized the Expedition in Its Second Year
Greeley aimed to surpass the British record for farthest northern latitude reached. In March 1882, he organized two sledging teams: Dr. Pavie led one along Ellesmere Island's east coast, while Lieutenant Lockwood led another across the frozen Robeson Channel to Greenland. Greeley promised a $900 reward to the team that broke the record.
Lockwood's team succeeded, reaching Cape Britannia four miles beyond the previous British record. After sixty days and a thousand miles of travel, they planted an American flag, built a cairn, and mapped 100 miles of previously undocumented Greenland coast. Their June 1, 1882 arrival was met with celebration, securing the expedition's place in history.
Secondary Search Mission For USS Jeannette Proves Unsuccessful
The team's secondary mission to search for the missing USS Jeannette yielded no trace of the vessel. However, this setback didn't diminish the expedition's significant scientific achievements and historic polar exploration success.
Arctic Survival Challenges
Setting Up Fort Conger Base Station Required Construction Within the Arctic Summer
Upon arrival, Greeley and his men faced an urgent task: establish a secure base before polar night. Working in rotating shifts during summer 1881, they built a 65-by-21-foot longhouse in just two weeks. The structure featured stoves, ovens, a bathroom with bathtub, officer quarters, enlisted bunks, a common space, and storage for sled supplies. The expedition transported more than 350 tons of supplies meant to last three years, including food provisions, 200 scientific instruments, and sled dog teams.
Polar Night Tested Expedition's Resilience
On October 14, 1881, the sun set for 137 days. Temperatures plummeted to –75°F with relentless wind and snow. During one violent storm with 65 mph winds, Greeley ordered the six strongest men to tie themselves together for the dangerous 100-yard trip to their observation huts. The crew survived until February 28, 1882, when the sun finally broke the darkness.
Relief Ship Neptune's 1882 Failure Creates Critical Logistics Crisis
As summer returned, Greeley expected a relief ship with supplies. However, bureaucratic delays proved disastrous. General William Hazen received slow authorization from Secretary Lincoln, causing the Neptune to depart St. John's, Newfoundland only on July 8, 1882—dangerously late in the season. By the time the Neptune approached, ice blocked Lady Franklin Bay.
Under threat from encroaching ice, expedition clerk William Beebe managed to drop off only 250 sets of rations at Cape Sabine—ten times less than the 2,500 sets Greeley's contingency plans required. This critical shortfall left Greeley's crew with deeply insufficient supplies.
Greeley Led His Men Through a Second Polar Night With Dwindling Resources
Facing a second Arctic winter with diminished food supplies, Greeley warned his crew that the psychological and physical toll would be worse this time. With the region slipping back into darkness and resources running critically low, Greeley's decisions in the months ahead would determine whether his expedition would survive or descend into disaster.
1-Page Summary
Additional Materials
Counterarguments
- The argument that understanding Arctic climate patterns would significantly improve national weather forecasting may be overstated, given the limited technology and scientific knowledge of the late 19th century.
- The U.S. decision to establish a research station at Lady Franklin Bay could be seen as more motivated by national prestige and competition with European powers than by purely scientific objectives.
- Robert Todd Lincoln's skepticism about Arctic exploration being wasteful was not unfounded, considering the high costs, risks, and uncertain practical benefits of such expeditions at the time.
- Reframing the mission to include searching for the USS Jeannette may have diluted the expedition's scientific focus and introduced additional risks and logistical complications.
- The loss of Howgate as a political supporter, while significant, also removed a corrupt figure whose embezzlement could have further undermined the expedition's credibility and funding.
- Greeley's strict enforcement of discipline, such as mandatory breakfast, may have unnecessarily exacerbated tensions and reduced morale among officers, potentially undermining leadership effectiveness.
- Kislingberry's resistance to authority, while partly due to personal grief, also highlights possible shortcomings in Greeley's leadership style and sensitivity to individual needs.
- The morale-boosting activities, while well-intentioned, were ultimately insufficient to prevent severe psychological decline, suggesting that more robust mental health strategies or support systems were needed.
- The focus on breaking the British northern latitude record may have prioritized nationalistic achievement over the safety and well-being of the crew.
- The failure to locate the USS Jeannette, despite being a secondary mission, could be viewed as a diversion of resources and attention from the primary scientific objectives.
- The construction of a large, well-equipped base and transport of massive supplies, while impressive, may have created logistical vulnerabilities and overreliance on timely resupply.
- The reliance on relief ships, given the known risks of Arctic ice and bureaucratic delays, could be criticized as poor contingency planning.
- Greeley's warnings about worsening conditions, while prudent, also reflect the expedition's precarious situation due to earlier planning and logistical failures.
Actionables
- you can create a personal resilience plan for challenging periods by listing potential stressors, identifying early warning signs of psychological strain, and outlining specific morale-boosting activities you can do alone or with others when times get tough (like themed dinners, creative projects, or learning something new together).
- a practical way to improve group cooperation during stressful projects is to set up a rotating responsibility schedule where each person leads a daily check-in, shares a positive observation, and suggests a small group activity, helping everyone feel included and reducing isolation.
- you can prevent critical supply shortfalls in your own life by making a seasonal checklist of essential resources (food, medicine, emergency contacts, backup power, etc.), reviewing it before periods of potential disruption, and setting calendar reminders to restock or update supplies well in advance.
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Expedition Planning and Funding
Howgate Linked Arctic Exploration and Meteorology to Secure U.S. Research Station
In the late 1870s, the Signal Corps, responsible for the nation's weather forecasting, saw Arctic climate study as essential for improving forecasts in the United States. Henry Howgate, a driving force for American Arctic expeditions, pushed Congress for funds to establish a U.S. research station focused on measuring the Arctic’s climate and meteorology. He recognized that understanding these patterns could significantly enhance national weather prediction.
At this time, European nations such as Russia, Germany, Sweden, and France all pledged to set up research stations in the Arctic, embracing a new era of collaborative, science-driven exploration rather than nationalist competition. Howgate, long thwarted in his efforts to secure congressional backing for Arctic missions, saw this international movement as an opportunity. In early 1880, his lobbying succeeded: Congress passed an act authorizing the establishment of a U.S. research station at Lady Franklin Bay on the northeastern coast of Ellesmere Island, deep within the Arctic Circle.
Lincoln's Indifference Delayed Funds, Nearly Derailed Mission
The timely launch of the Lady Franklin Bay expedition faced new obstacles after President Garfield appointed Robert Todd Lincoln as Secretary of War. Lincoln, Abraham Lincoln’s son, had little interest in Arctic exploration, dismissing it as a wasteful endeavor. Since all authorized funds for the mission flowed through his office, Lincoln's indifference became a critical bottleneck. By the spring of 1881, Adolphus Greeley, the appointed expedition leader, grew concerned: the summer window for departing to the Arctic was closing fast, yet Lincoln had neither released funds nor given authorization to proceed.
Greeley’s initial approach—emphasizing the scientific value and national prestige of establishing the northernmost research station—failed to sway Lincoln. At his wife Henrietta’s suggestion, Greeley shifted his strategy. The highly publicized disappearance of the USS Jeanette’s Arctic exploration party offered a new angle. Greeley framed his expedition as both a scientific venture and a potential search for Jeanette survivors, arguing it would demonstrate Lincoln’s commitment to national responsibility and public con ...
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Expedition Planning and Funding
Additional Materials
Counterarguments
- The actual impact of Arctic climate study on improving U.S. weather forecasting in the late 19th century may have been limited by the era’s technological and scientific constraints.
- The prioritization of Arctic exploration by the Signal Corps could be criticized as diverting resources from more immediate or practical meteorological needs within the continental United States.
- The assertion that understanding Arctic climate patterns would "significantly" enhance national weather prediction may overstate the direct benefits achievable at the time.
- The shift toward international scientific collaboration in Arctic exploration did not eliminate underlying nationalistic motives or competition among participating countries.
- Howgate’s lobbying and the subsequent congressional approval may have been influenced by political maneuvering and personal ambition as much as b ...
Actionables
- you can reframe your requests or proposals to align with the current interests or concerns of decision-makers to increase your chances of approval; for example, if your manager seems uninterested in a project’s original purpose, highlight how it addresses a recent company challenge or supports a trending initiative.
- a practical way to build support for your ideas is to identify and connect with others who share your goals, so you’re not the only advocate; for instance, before pitching a new process at work, talk with colleagues to find shared pain points and present your proposal as a group concern rather than a solo effort.
- you can prepare for setbacks by mapping out w ...
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Leadership and Personnel Management
Greeley's Tension With Officers Resenting Strict Arctic Protocol Enforcement
Greeley implements strict discipline at Fort Conger, requiring all—officers and enlisted men alike—to attend mandatory breakfast at 7:30 a.m. sharp. This rule is meant to establish uniform standards and promote unity, but Lieutenant Frederick Kislingberry resents it, believing officers should not be required to rise at the same time as enlisted men or share meals with them. Kislingberry’s repeated absences from breakfast lead to a confrontation: Greeley insists he is setting a poor example, but Kislingberry staunchly argues the rule is unnecessary and undermines his status. When pressured, Kislingberry reacts with cold defiance, stating he will consider resigning and returning home with the departing Proteus, surprising Greeley, who realizes that pleading with Kislingberry to stay would make him look weak. The clash highlights the broader tension between enforcing strict protocols for group cohesion and managing the expectations and pride of experienced officers.
Kislingberry’s attempted resignation becomes even more consequential when the Proteus departs unexpectedly, leading to his accidental stranding at Fort Conger and deepening the rift between him and Greeley.
Kislingberry's Grief and Isolation Compromised His Willingness to Accept Greeley's Authority and Engage With the Expedition
Kislingberry, a veteran of the Indian Wars, joins the Arctic expedition seeking escape from his own personal grief: the deaths of two wives in just three years, leaving behind four sons. His emotional wounds, combined with professional pride, make it difficult for him to accept Greeley's authority or engage constructively with the mission. Kislingberry interprets Greeley's references to "mental rigor" as insensitive remarks about his loss, deepening his sense of isolation. Even after Greeley recalls how Kislingberry begged to join the expedition despite initial doubts about his emotional fitness, Kislingberry’s pride prevents reconciliation, leaving him in a state of limbo that hampers his contributions to the group.
Greeley Used Strategies to Maintain Morale Against Psychological Effects of Prolonged Arctic Confinement
During the long polar night, Greeley acts to protect his men against the psychological strains of isolation and monotony. He brings games, musical instruments, magazines, and books—mostly about the Arctic—for recreation. Greeley and ...
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Leadership and Personnel Management
Additional Materials
Counterarguments
- The enforcement of strict uniformity, such as mandatory breakfast for all ranks, may have undermined established military hierarchies and traditions that help maintain order and morale among officers, potentially causing more harm than good.
- Kislingberry’s resistance to the breakfast rule could be seen as a legitimate defense of officer privileges and the chain of command, rather than mere pride or insubordination.
- Greeley’s insistence on absolute equality in daily routines may have failed to account for the different roles, responsibilities, and expectations placed on officers versus enlisted men.
- The narrative attributes Kislingberry’s difficulties primarily to personal grief and pride, but it may understate the possibility that Greeley’s leadership style was inflexible or insensitive to individual needs.
- Greeley’s morale-boosting activities, while well-int ...
Actionables
- You can set a daily group ritual, like a shared morning check-in or breakfast, to foster unity and reduce hierarchy in any team or household, even if it’s just a few minutes together before starting the day; this helps everyone feel included and sets a consistent tone, regardless of roles or status.
- When you notice someone resisting group routines or feeling isolated, privately ask about their personal challenges and listen without judgment, then invite them to suggest small changes to group activities that would make participation easier for them; this approach balances group cohesion with individual needs and pride.
- During periods of stress or isolation ...
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Scientific Mission and Exploration Goals
The expedition led by Greeley pursues vital scientific objectives while aiming for record-breaking exploration feats in the high Arctic.
Expedition's Main Goal: Gather 500 Daily Meteorological Measurements and Samples From the Northernmost Outpost
The main scientific mission is to take approximately 500 meteorological measurements and collect samples of plants, animals, and minerals each day. Participating as part of an international Arctic initiative, the team at the northernmost outpost contributes data alongside research stations established by other nations in different parts of the Arctic to facilitate comparable polar climate research.
Two Observation Huts Staffed: Teams Recorded Temperature, Humidity, Snow Depth, Wind Speed, and Earth Gravity Fluctuations Using a 100-pound Brass Pendulum 100 Yards From the Longhouse
The men set up two observation huts, each about 100 yards from their longhouse, and equipped them with scientific instruments. These teams check and record air temperature, humidity, depth of snow cover, and wind speed every hour. Additionally, they use a 100-pound brass pendulum to measure fluctuations in Earth’s gravity, emphasizing the advanced and diligent nature of their observations.
Meteorological Data Supported Arctic Research With Comparable Polar Climate Measurements
The measurements and daily scientific efforts feed into a broader international research effort, supporting Arctic and polar studies with standardized data from the extreme north.
Greeley's Record-Breaking Northern Latitude Ambition Energized the Expedition in Its Second Year
Greeley aims not only for scientific accomplishment but also for exploration glory, specifically to surpass the British record for the farthest northern latitude attained by any expedition. His leadership infuses the mission with new energy and meticulous planning for this secondary goal.
Greeley Organized 1882 Sledding Teams for Farthest North: Dr. Pavie and Lt. Lockwood Lead Expeditions
In March 1882, Greeley organizes two sledging teams for the record attempt. Dr. Pavie leads one group along the east coast of Ellesmere Island toward Cape Joseph Henry. Second Lieutenant James Lockwood leads another across the frozen Robeson Channel to Greenland, then pushes north along its coast. Greeley details precise supply lists and outfitting, including sleds, cookstoves, boots, and shared sleeping bags, to maximize their chances of cold-weather survival and success. He motivates the men further by promising a $900 reward to the team that breaks the record.
Lockwood's Team Set a British Record By Reaching Cape Britannia, Four Miles Beyond the Northern Latitude ...
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Scientific Mission and Exploration Goals
Additional Materials
Counterarguments
- The focus on record-breaking exploration feats may have diverted attention and resources from the primary scientific objectives of the expedition.
- The daily target of 500 meteorological measurements and samples could have led to quantity being prioritized over the quality or depth of scientific analysis.
- Participation in an international Arctic initiative does not guarantee that the data collected was directly comparable or integrated effectively with other nations’ research due to potential differences in methodology or instrumentation.
- The use of a 100-pound brass pendulum to measure gravity fluctuations, while advanced for the time, may have produced data with limited accuracy or scientific value by modern standards.
- The promise ...
Actionables
- you can set up a daily micro-observation routine at home or in your neighborhood to track weather, plant growth, or animal activity, helping you develop consistency and attention to detail while contributing to citizen science platforms if you choose
- (for example, record temperature, cloud cover, or bird sightings at the same time each day for a month, then compare your findings with online databases or share them with friends to see patterns and changes over time)
- a practical way to motivate yourself or a group to achieve a challenging goal is to create a friendly competition with a clear reward for reaching a specific milestone
- (for example, challenge friends or family to walk the farthest distance in a month, offering a small prize for the winner, or set a personal reward for reaching a new personal best in a hobby or skill)
- you can document and celebrate your ...
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Arctic Survival Challenges
Explorer Adolphus Greely’s 1881-1883 Arctic expedition endures relentless challenges, from the logistical race against the elements to the psychological strains of prolonged darkness and isolation.
Setting Up Fort Conger Base Station Required Construction and Supply Organization Within the Arctic Summer Before Polar Night Started
Upon arrival in the Arctic, Greely and his men faced an urgent task: establish a secure, livable base before the onset of the polar night. Greeley worked relentlessly in the preceding months to gather supplies and prepare personnel, knowing that once summer faded, survival would depend on meticulous preparation.
Greeley Organized Rotating Shifts In Summer 1881 to Build and Furnish a 65-by-21-Foot Longhouse Within two Weeks
The expedition’s pre-cut lumber allowed rapid construction of a 65-by-21-foot longhouse, completed in just two weeks through rotating teams working around the clock. This structure was far from rudimentary. It featured stoves, ovens, and a boiler for the kitchen; a full bathroom with a bathtub; officer quarters in the northern end and enlisted bunks in the south; a common space including kitchen, bathroom, and a scientific work area; plus storage for sled supplies and a kennel for dog teams. Pressed for time, the men also constructed weather stations and unloaded supplies as fast as possible from the anchored Proteus ship, racing the closing ice that threatened to trap ship and crew alike.
Expedition Transported 350 Tons of Supplies For Three Years
The expedition brought more than 350 tons of supplies—ample stores meant to last three years. These included salmon, pork, crab, mutton, 2,000 pounds of potatoes, canned vegetables and fruits to prevent scurvy, and casks of rum. Over 200 scientific instruments were transported for conducting meticulous readings and research. Building materials, supplies for constructing an observatory, steam and rowboats, as well as sled dog teams, ensured readiness for both research and survival contingencies.
Polar Night Tested Expedition's Resilience: 137 Days Without Daylight, Extreme Cold, Violent Storms
On October 14, 1881, the sun set for the last time above Fort Conger. For the next 137 days, Greely’s men endured constant darkness, with temperatures plummeting to –75°F and relentless wind and snow. Psychological strain became a concern, as prolonged darkness had driven previous explorers to madness. To cope, the men maintained strict routines inside the longhouse and undertook hazardous outdoor duties when necessary.
Greeley's Mandatory Equipment Check Protocols in Severe Conditions
A prime example of Greely’s leadership and the team’s resilience emerged during a violent storm with winds reaching 65 mph. Greeley ordered the six strongest men to tie themselves together for safety to make the necessary 100-yard trip to their observation huts, exemplifying the severe demands and risks of polar survival.
Polar Night Survival Until February 28, 1882
Despite the confinement and hardship, the crew survived their first polar night. Finally, on February 28, 1882, the sun broke the darkness, raising spirits and enabling preparations for the arrival of critical supply ships.
Relief Ship Neptune's 1882 Failure to Reach Fort Conger Creates Critical Logistics Crisis and Threatens Expedition Survival
As summer returned, Greely and his men expected a relief ship delivering supplies and news from home. Yet, bureaucratic delays proved disastrous. General William Hazen, head of the Signal Corps, received slow authorization from Secretary of War Robert Todd Lincoln, causing the relief vessel Neptune to depart St. John’s, Newfoundland only on July 8, 1882—dangerously late in the season.
William Hazen's Delayed Authorization Caused the Late July Neptune Departure, Leading To Ice Encountered Before Lady Franklin Bay
By the time the Neptune, led by Signal Corps clerk William Beebe, approached the Arctic, ice choked the channels, making La ...
Here’s what you’ll find in our full summary
Arctic Survival Challenges
Additional Materials
Counterarguments
- While Greely’s preparations were extensive, some historians argue that the expedition’s reliance on relief ships and external resupply made them vulnerable to bureaucratic delays and unforeseen circumstances.
- The decision to bring such a large quantity of scientific instruments and research equipment may have diverted focus and resources from survival essentials.
- The construction of a relatively elaborate longhouse, including amenities like a full bathroom and officer quarters, could be seen as prioritizing comfort over efficiency or rapid shelter-building in a harsh environment.
- Greely’s strict routines and protocols, while intended to maintain discipline, may have contributed to psychological strain by limiting personal autonomy and flexibility among the crew.
- The expedition’s contingency planning, though thorough, ultimately prov ...
Actionables
- You can create a personal emergency readiness plan by setting up a checklist for essential supplies, designating a secure space in your home, and practicing rapid setup drills to ensure you can establish a safe, functional environment quickly in case of unexpected disruptions (like power outages or severe weather).
- A practical way to build resilience for challenging periods is to schedule a week where you intentionally limit light exposure and social interaction in the evenings, then track your mood and energy, and experiment with structured routines and small morale-boosting activities to see what helps you cope best.
- You can organize your h ...
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