Ellis Island | Alien Enemies | 3
In this episode of American History Tellers, the podcast examines how Ellis Island transformed from an immigration gateway into a detention facility between 1917 and the 1950s. The episode covers the xenophobic and eugenic immigration restrictions enacted during the 1920s, which used quota systems to favor northern Europeans while severely limiting entry from southern and eastern Europe and Asia. These policies created arbitrary enforcement that separated families and turned away thousands at the last minute.
The episode also explores how Ellis Island became a detention center for "enemy aliens" during both World Wars and the Cold War, and how the Red Scare of 1919 led to mass arrests and deportations of suspected radicals with minimal due process. Throughout these periods, immigration procedures left individuals vulnerable to subjective decisions by inspectors, and detainees faced prolonged detention with little recourse. The episode traces Ellis Island's eventual closure in 1954 and its later restoration as a museum and national monument.
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1-Page Summary
Xenophobic and Eugenic Immigration Restrictions (1917-1924)
Between 1917 and 1924, the United States enacted immigration laws rooted in xenophobia and eugenics that fundamentally reshaped who could enter the country. In February 1917, Congress overrode President Woodrow Wilson's veto to pass the Immigration Act of 1917, which required immigrants over 16 to pass a literacy test. While this had limited practical effect, the 1918 Immigration Act expanded deportation powers to target political radicals suspected of advocating violent overthrow of the government.
The 1920s brought more sweeping restrictions. President Warren G. Harding signed the Emergency Quotas Act in May 1921, capping immigration at 3% per country based on the 1910 census—heavily favoring northern Europeans. The 1924 Immigration Act tightened this further to 2% based on the 1890 census, allocating 85% of quota slots to northern Europeans. While 300,000 Italians immigrated in 1914, only 4,000 could come annually after 1924.
Restrictionists justified these policies through eugenics, arguing that southern and eastern Europeans would bring crime, insanity, and disease. Public anxiety during postwar recession fueled fears that immigrants were taking American jobs and importing Bolshevism. The quota system created cruel, arbitrary enforcement: each month, steamships raced to New York Harbor before quotas closed, and arriving even minutes late could mean immediate deportation. In July 1923, a Polish mother who gave birth en route faced the heartbreaking reality that her newborn couldn't enter because the quota had filled.
The 1924 law also barred any immigrant ineligible for citizenship, effectively stopping Asian immigration, while exempting Western Hemisphere arrivals. As a result, 60% of 1920s immigrants came from Canada and 30% from Mexico. These laws defined U.S. immigration until 1965, when President Johnson called them "a deep and painful flaw in the fabric of American justice."
Wartime and Cold War Detention of "Enemy Aliens"
Throughout both World Wars and the Cold War, U.S. policy authorized the detention of "enemy aliens," transforming Ellis Island from an immigration gateway into a detention facility with little due process.
Four days after declaring war in April 1917, President Woodrow Wilson designated all non-naturalized German men as potential security threats. Federal agents quickly rounded up about 1,000 individuals, mostly sailors, and transported them to Ellis Island. Commissioner Frederick Howe protested the inhumane conditions and lack of due process, saying he had become "a jailer instead of a commissioner of immigration, a jailer not of convicted offenders but of suspected persons." By June 1917, detainees were transferred to Georgia, though over 7,000 alleged enemy aliens would pass through Ellis Island during the war.
After Pearl Harbor, President Franklin D. Roosevelt's administration labeled non-naturalized Japanese, Germans, and Italians as enemy aliens. Over 7,000 people were detained at Ellis Island during World War II. Within one month of Pearl Harbor, 600 suspected enemy aliens were held there, and The New York Times referred to the facility as a "concentration camp."
During the Cold War, the Internal Security Act of 1950 authorized detention and deportation of non-citizens with current or past ties to Communist or totalitarian organizations. The law's scope was extremely broad, and Ellis Island's detainee population tripled in ninety days after passage. A German war bride was detained for compulsory Hitler Youth membership, and an Italian opera singer for attending a Fascist school mandatory under Mussolini. Detainees faced immense difficulty mounting any defense, as officials could withhold evidence. When violinist Joseph Szigeti's lawyer requested the charges and evidence, officials refused, stating, "I'm not at liberty to disclose that information." Detainees often languished for months or years with little recourse.
Red Scare: Anti-Immigrant Hysteria and Mass Deportations
The 1919 Red Scare marked an era when anti-immigrant hysteria led to mass arrests and deportations of suspected anarchists and communists. In November 1919, authorities raided places like night schools, targeting immigrants on flimsy evidence. Russian immigrant Joseph Palulek was arrested merely for attending a math class, with an inspector using his presence and a membership book as evidence of advocating violent overthrow.
Public fear soared after postal officials intercepted 36 anarchist mail bombs on May 1, 1919, and bombings occurred in eight cities a month later, including at Attorney General A. Mitchell Palmer's home. Congress provided emergency funding to establish the General Intelligence Division under J. Edgar Hoover, a precursor to the FBI with broad investigative powers. Simultaneously, the Seattle General Strike and labor unrest involving one-fifth of American workers fueled support for drastic measures.
The 1918 Immigration Act empowered authorities to deport foreign nationals simply for organizational membership. Officials arrested 47 foreign-born International Workers of the World members from the Seattle strike, transporting them to Ellis Island on the "Red Special" train. Commissioner Howe delayed deportations for legal appeals, and ultimately most were released when a Labor Department ruling determined membership alone wasn't enough to justify deportation.
Attorney General Palmer pressed on, targeting well-known radicals like Emma Goldman. Goldman and nearly 250 others were deported to the Soviet Union on December 21, 1919, aboard a ship the press dubbed the "Soviet Ark." Even former Ellis Island translator and now-congressman Fiorello LaGuardia succumbed to Red Scare hysteria, attacking Howe for defending detainees and suggesting a 50% salary cut. Under such pressure, Howe resigned in September 1919.
After Palmer's prediction of a violent May 1920 uprising failed to materialize, the hysteria faded, but public suspicion of foreign-born radicals persisted. Politicians advocated for laws to "build a wall against Bolshevism" and protect against "red anarchists," shaping American immigration policy for years to come.
Erosion of Civil Liberties and Due Process
Ellis Island stands as a symbol of both immigrant hope and the erosion of civil liberties many faced. Commissioner Howe improved detained immigrants' conditions from 1913 to 1919, introducing magazines, toys, playgrounds, educational programs, and decorations to address what he called "the dreadful idleness of these poor people." Despite these reforms, he struggled with the facility's shift into a military detention center and called the lack of due process for German detainees abhorrent to his legal ethics.
Immigration procedures left individuals vulnerable to subjective decisions by inspectors who could exclude or detain based on minimal evidence. Inspectors assessed mental fitness by asking immigrants to count backwards from 20 or name their country's capital. Nineteen-year-old Italian immigrant Gemma Zatello failed these tests in February 1916 and was labeled an imbecile and denied entry. After months of detention and the tragic death of her youngest sibling from meningitis, officials admitted her family but left her stranded. Her father Salvatore's appeals, including a letter to President Wilson, went unanswered.
Suspected radicals could be detained indefinitely while officials withheld evidence or charges. The New York Times observed that "New York has a concentration camp of its own… where secrecy reigns and civil liberties have all but disappeared." The harsh practices extended to the most vulnerable, including a Polish mother told her newborn couldn't enter due to exhausted quotas, and Cold War detainees who endured extreme overcrowding and prison-like conditions.
Public perception shifted dramatically, with critics labeling Ellis Island a "socialist hub" and "red revolutionist breeding ground." The New York Times declared the island's name had become synonymous with being unwanted in America, and Life magazine described it as gray and gloomy, "full of bewildered people who have become victims of American politics."
Ellis Island: From Immigration Gateway to Historical Monument
For its first 25 years, from 1892 to 1917, Ellis Island served as the principal U.S. port of entry, with more than 12 million immigrants passing through its gates. However, World War I and the 1917 Bolshevik Revolution transformed it into a detention center for political radicals and enemy aliens.
By 1925, immigrants had to complete paperwork and medical examinations abroad for U.S. visas, rendering Ellis Island largely obsolete. The Secretary of Labor described it as looking like a deserted village by 1924. Immigration plummeted during the 1930s due to quotas and the Great Depression, and in 1931, for the first time in American history, more people left the country than arrived.
Ellis Island primarily served as a detention facility during World War II and the early Cold War. In November 1954, the Eisenhower administration announced its closure, releasing detainees on parole unless they were security risks. On November 12, 1954, Ellis Island closed with a Norwegian fisherman who had overstayed his shore leave as the final detainee.
After closure, the facility fell into disrepair as vandals stole fixtures and weather damaged buildings. In 1965, President Lyndon B. Johnson placed Ellis Island under National Park Service control as part of the Statue of Liberty National Monument, though funding constraints delayed restoration for years. In the 1980s, the National Park Service garnered enough private donations to begin comprehensive restoration, and by 1990, Ellis Island reopened as an immigration museum. Ethnic communities reclaimed Ellis Island as part of their heritage, transforming it into a symbol of both hope and perseverance, as well as exclusion and hardship. Today, it stands as an icon representing the challenges and dreams of generations striving to make a new life in the United States.
1-Page Summary
Additional Materials
Counterarguments
- While the quota laws of the 1920s were rooted in xenophobia and eugenics, some supporters at the time argued they were necessary to maintain social cohesion and protect American workers during periods of economic instability.
- The literacy test of 1917, though exclusionary in intent, reflected a broader global trend at the time, as many countries implemented similar requirements for immigrants.
- The expansion of deportation powers in 1918 was partly a response to genuine fears of political violence, as the U.S. experienced several anarchist bombings and labor unrest.
- The quota system, while discriminatory, did not completely halt immigration from southern and eastern Europe; some individuals and families were still able to immigrate through available quotas or other means.
- The exemption of Western Hemisphere immigrants from quotas allowed for continued migration from Canada and Mexico, which contributed to the economic development of certain U.S. regions.
- Detention of "enemy aliens" during wartime, while harsh, was not unique to the United States; similar policies were enacted by other countries involved in the World Wars.
- Some of the restrictive immigration policies reflected prevailing public opinion and security concerns of the era, rather than being solely the product of elite or government prejudice.
- The transformation of Ellis Island into a museum and heritage site has allowed for public education and reflection on both the positive and negative aspects of U.S. immigration history.
Actionables
- you can review your own family's immigration history and identify any policies or quotas that might have affected your ancestors' ability to enter the country, then write a short reflection on how those laws shaped your family's story and opportunities
- (for example, look up census years, country quotas, or literacy requirements that would have applied to your relatives, and consider how different policies might have changed your family's path).
- a practical way to recognize the impact of arbitrary enforcement is to track current news stories about immigration delays or detentions, then keep a simple log of the reasons given for each case and note any patterns of subjectivity or inconsistency
- (for example, jot down headlines or summaries and highlight when decisions seem based on vague criteria, such as "security risk" or "mental fitness," to see how these echoes of past practices persist).
- you can create a personal timeline that marks major U.S. immigration law changes alongside key world events and your own family's milestones, helping you visualize how global anxieties and policy shifts might have influenced your family's migration or opportunities
- (for example, plot the 1924 quota law, World War I, and the Cold War on a timeline, then add your family's arrival dates or moves to see possible connections).
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Xenophobic and Eugenic Immigration Restrictions (1917-1924)
Between 1917 and 1924, the United States enacted a series of immigration laws rooted in xenophobia and eugenics, fundamentally reshaping the nation's policies on who could enter, stay, and become a citizen.
1917 Immigration Act Overrode Wilson's Veto; Set Literacy Requirements, Expanded Radical Deportation Power
In February 1917, Congress passed the Immigration Act of 1917 over President Woodrow Wilson’s veto. Wilson had objected to the bill's inclusion of a literacy test, arguing that it would create an unfair barrier for new arrivals. Nevertheless, Congress overrode his objection and required all immigrants over 16 to read about 40 words from the Bible in their native language. This measure was intended to limit entry of "undesirable" immigrants but had limited practical effect: fewer than 1,500 people were excluded under the test because it allowed any language and most prospective newcomers could meet the standard.
Wider powers of deportation were established in 1918. The Immigration Act of that year authorized the removal of non-citizens belonging to organizations that advocated the violent overthrow of the U.S. government, further empowering authorities to target political radicals amid the postwar climate of suspicion and unrest.
1921 Quotas Act and 1924 Immigration Act Favored Northern Europeans, Restricted Southern/Eastern Europeans Based On Eugenics
The 1920s brought far more sweeping restrictions. In May 1921, President Warren G. Harding signed the Emergency Quotas Act, which set a 3% cap on immigration from any country, using the 1910 U.S. census as a reference point. Since more Americans in 1910 came from northern Europe, this heavily favored those countries and sharply curtailed arrivals from southern and eastern Europe. Whereas roughly 300,000 Italians immigrated in 1914, after this law only about 40,000 could come annually.
Three years later, the 1924 Immigration Act ("Johnson-Reed Act") set even tighter boundaries: just 2% of each nationality present in the U.S. in 1890 would be allowed entry annually. The lawmakers’ choice of such an old census further skewed the quotas in favor of northern Europeans—85% of quota slots went to that group. As a result, fewer than 4,000 Italians could immigrate per year, while 50,000 Germans could. By 1960, just over 5% of Americans were foreign born, compared to nearly 15% in 1890.
Restrictionists justified these policies through the pseudoscience of eugenics. They argued that immigrants from southern and eastern Europe were likely to bring with them crime, insanity, and disease, and that admitting them would dilute or "replace" America’s so-called superior stock. Congress even commissioned a prominent eugenicist, whose findings—highly dubious—became a weapon for further restriction.
Public anxiety fanned these flames amid postwar recession: two million were unemployed, and anti-immigrant activists claimed Poles, Ukrainians, and others were coming to take American jobs. Leaders repeatedly warned about job competition and radicalism, especially from eastern Europeans and Poles, linking them to instability, violence, and even Bolshevism.
Quota System Enforced Cruel Separations and Denied Thousands Entry Based On Timing
The new laws created a quota-driven, first-come, first-served system that was often arbitrary and cruel. Each country's annual quota was split into monthly allotments, meaning that on the first of each month, steamships rushed toward New York Harbor, racing to dock and unload passengers before quotas closed. Arriving even minutes after quota slots filled could mean immediate deportation.
These draconian rules led to painful family separations. In July 1923, for example, a Polish mother who had just given birth on a ship en route to New York fa ...
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Xenophobic and Eugenic Immigration Restrictions (1917-1924)
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Counterarguments
- Some supporters of the 1917-1924 immigration laws argued that the restrictions were necessary to protect American workers from job competition during periods of high unemployment and economic instability.
- Proponents of the quota system claimed it was intended to preserve social cohesion and facilitate the assimilation of immigrants by limiting the number of newcomers from diverse backgrounds at any one time.
- The literacy test, while exclusionary, was seen by some as a way to ensure that immigrants had basic skills that could help them succeed in American society.
- The shift to consular processing abroad was intended to streamline immigration procedures and ...
Actionables
- you can review your own family immigration history or that of friends and acquaintances, noting how past laws and quotas might have shaped who could enter, who was excluded, and how family stories were affected, helping you recognize the personal impact of policy decisions
- for example, ask relatives about immigration paperwork, look for old documents, or map out which ancestors arrived when and from where, then compare those dates to the laws in place at the time to see who might have been affected by quotas or exclusions.
- a practical way to recognize the legacy of exclusion is to visit a local cemetery or historical archive and look for evidence of immigrant communities from different eras, noting which groups are represented and which are missing or underrepresented
- for example, walk through older sections of cemeteries and note surnames, languages on gravestones, or community memorials, then reflect on how immigration laws may have shaped the makeup of your town or city.
- you can challenge assumpti ...
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Wartime and Cold War Detention of "Enemy Aliens"
Throughout the First World War, the Second World War, and the Cold War, U.S. government policy and law repeatedly authorized the detention of so-called “enemy aliens.” These policies transformed places like Ellis Island—through which millions of immigrants had previously entered the country—into grim facilities for mass detention, often with little or no due process.
Wilson's Policies Turned Ellis Island Into WWII German Detention Facility
Post-U.S. April 1917 War Declaration, 1,000 German Nationals Detained At Ellis Island
Four days after the declaration of war in April 1917, President Woodrow Wilson announced new rules that designated all German-born men in the U.S. who had not been naturalized as potential security threats. These so-called "alien enemies" were subject to arrest and detention without trial. Federal agents moved swiftly, rounding up German nationals—many from ships docked in New York Harbor and shipping hubs like Hoboken, New Jersey. About 1,000 individuals, mostly sailors from German ships, were transported by ferry and barge to Ellis Island, which became a detention center as prescribed by the President's orders.
Commissioner Howe Protested Inhumane Conditions and Lack of Due Process, Calling Himself a Jailer of Suspects Sent To Ellis Island As a Dumping Ground
Frederick Howe, Ellis Island’s Commissioner of Immigration, protested the policy. He argued that Ellis Island’s facilities were unfit for permanent residence—the buildings had bare cement floors and freezing corridors. Forced to accommodate 1,000 detainees, Howe objected to the inhumane conditions and lack of preparedness, decrying the denial of due process and the fact that the only “crime” of these men was being German. Howe later described the transformation of Ellis Island’s purpose with dismay: “I became a jailer instead of a commissioner of immigration, a jailer not of convicted offenders but of suspected persons who had been arrested and railroaded to Ellis Island as the most available dumping ground.” He was especially troubled by being forced to ignore legal ethics and deny the detainees any meaningful legal rights.
German Detainees Sent to Georgia; Ellis Island Used For Military Purposes
By June 1917, most German detainees had been transferred from Ellis Island to a camp in Georgia, but Ellis Island continued to serve military purposes. The Army took over the hospital to care for wounded troops, and the Navy quartered sailors in the dormitories. Over the course of the war, more than 7,000 alleged enemy aliens would pass through Ellis Island under these wartime rules.
After Pearl Harbor, Roosevelt Labeled Non-naturalized Japanese, Germans, and Italians as Enemy Aliens, Detaining Over 7,000 At Ellis Island During WWII
Within a Month of Pearl Harbor, 600 Suspected Enemy Aliens Were Detained At Ellis Island; the New York Times Called It a Concentration Camp
After the attack on Pearl Harbor, President Franklin D. Roosevelt’s administration swiftly labeled non-naturalized Japanese, Germans, and Italians in the United States as enemy aliens. This expanded the scope of wartime detention, leading to the confinement of over 7,000 people at Ellis Island during World War II, targeted both for their national origin and perceived threat. Within one month of Pearl Harbor, 600 suspected enemy aliens were being detained at Ellis Island, and The New York Times referred to the facility as a “concentration camp.”
WWII: Over 7,000 Detainees at Ellis Island due to Origin and Threat
During World War II, the justification for detention was primarily the individual’s national origin or assumed threat level. Over 7,000 detainees passed through Ellis Island during the war, demonstrating the scale and intensity of such measures.
Internal Security Act of 1950 Authorized Detention/Deportation of Non-citizens Linked To Communism/Totalitarianism, Creating Framework for Indefinite Detention During Cold War
Ellis Island Detainee Population Tripled In 90 Days After Internal Security Act Due to Broad Interpretation of Past Political Affiliations
With the onset of the Cold War, Congress passed the Int ...
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Wartime and Cold War Detention of "Enemy Aliens"
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Counterarguments
- The U.S. government’s detention policies during wartime were consistent with international practices at the time, as many countries detained nationals of enemy states for security reasons.
- The designation of “enemy aliens” was based on concerns about espionage and sabotage, which were considered legitimate national security threats during periods of war.
- Some level of due process was provided in certain cases, such as hearings or reviews, even if these were limited by modern standards.
- The transformation of Ellis Island into a detention facility was a temporary wartime measure, and the site later returned to its original function.
- The Internal Security Act of 1950 was enacted during a period of heightened fear of Communist infiltration, reflecting w ...
Actionables
- You can review your own family’s immigration or citizenship documents to identify any historical vulnerabilities to detention or loss of rights, then create a secure digital backup and share a summary with close relatives so everyone knows where to find essential records in an emergency.
- A practical way to understand the impact of government secrecy on personal rights is to request your own records from federal agencies (like a FOIA request for your immigration or travel history) and note any withheld or redacted information, then reflect on how lack of access could affect your ability to challenge official dec ...
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Red Scare: Anti-Immigrant Hysteria, Fears of Political Radicalism, Mass Deportations of Suspected Anarchists, Communists
The 1919 Red Scare marks an era when anti-immigrant hysteria gripped the United States, fueled by fears of political radicalism and resulting in mass arrests and deportations of suspected anarchists and communists. Ellis Island, once a symbol of opportunity, became a detention and deportation hub as suspicion and xenophobia swept the nation.
1919 Red Scare Sparked Hysteria, Leading To Arrests of Suspected Radicals at Ellis Island On Flimsy Evidence
In November 1919, authorities raided places like night schools operated by organizations deemed radical, targeting immigrants based on flimsy associations and scant evidence. A Russian immigrant, Joseph Palulek, exemplified many who were arrested for merely attending a math class at the Union of Russian Workers' People's House Night School. An immigration inspector accused Palulek of advocating the violent overthrow of the United States government, using his presence at the school and a membership book as evidence. Although Palulek insisted he received the book solely as a student, not a member, he was nevertheless detained.
Anarchist Mail Bombs in May 1919 and June Bombings in Eight Cities Sparked Fear of Violent Communist Uprising and Revolutionary Overthrow
Public fear soared when, on May 1, 1919, postal officials intercepted 36 anarchist mail bombs sent to government officials and businessmen. Bombings in eight cities a month later, including at the home of Attorney General A. Mitchell Palmer, heightened fears of a violent revolutionary plot.
Attorney General Palmer Established the General Intelligence Division, a Precursor to the FBI, Allowing Hoover to Investigate Alleged Communist Alien Troublemakers With Broad Powers and Emergency Funding
Responding to the violence and unrest, Congress provided emergency funding to Palmer’s Justice Department, establishing the General Intelligence Division under J. Edgar Hoover. This precursor to the FBI was granted expansive powers to investigate and root out “alien troublemakers.”
Seattle General Strike of 1919 and Labor Unrest Involving One-fifth of U.S. Workforce Fueled Political Support for Drastic Measures
Simultaneously, the Seattle General Strike in February 1919 saw 65,000 walk off the job, igniting a year of labor unrest. One-fifth of American workers joined strikes amid inflation and the loss of wartime labor protections. These disruptions reinforced fears of societal collapse and emboldened support for aggressive action against suspected radicals.
1918 Act Enabled Deportation of Non-citizens For Organizational Ties, Targeting Suspected Radicals
The 1918 Immigration Act empowered authorities to deport foreign nationals simply for membership in organizations said to advocate government overthrow.
Authorities Rounded Up 47 Foreign-Born International Workers of the World From the Seattle General Strike, Transporting Them To Ellis Island on the Deportation Train Dubbed the Red Special
Authorities arrested 47 foreign-born International Workers of the World (IWW) members from the Seattle strike, transporting them across the country to Ellis Island on the infamous “Red Special” train.
Commissioner Howe Delayed IWW Deportations for Legal Challenge Ruling On Membership
Ellis Island Commissioner Frederick Howe delayed deportations to allow legal appeals. Howe, voicing his belief in civil liberties, refused to prioritize expedience over due process.
IWW Detainee Release Shows Arrests Targeted Association, Not Criminal Conduct
Ultimately, a Labor Department ruling determined IWW membership alone was not enough to justify deportation; specific criminal actions had to be proven. Most IWW detainees were released, including one discovered to be a U.S. citizen, exposing the arbitrary and sweeping nature of the arrests.
Goldman and 250 Suspected Radicals Were Deported To the Soviet Union On December 21, 1919, Aboard an Army Transport Ship Called the Soviet Ark
Not all were so fortunate. Attorney General Palmer pressed on with his crackdown, targeting well-known radicals like Russian-born anarchist Emma Goldman, celebrated for her campaigns for birth control and notorious for her alleged role in the assassination attempt on Henry Clay Frick. Goldman and nearly 250 others were held in grim conditions at Ellis Island. She described her experience as “frightful,” emphasizing that immigrant treatment had scarcely improved since h ...
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Red Scare: Anti-Immigrant Hysteria, Fears of Political Radicalism, Mass Deportations of Suspected Anarchists, Communists
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Counterarguments
- The fear of political radicalism during the Red Scare was not entirely unfounded, as there were actual incidents of violence, such as the mail bombings and citywide bombings, which justified some level of government concern and response.
- The government’s actions, including the establishment of the General Intelligence Division, can be seen as an attempt to maintain national security and public order during a period of genuine unrest and violence.
- The 1918 Immigration Act and subsequent deportations reflected prevailing legal standards and public sentiment of the time, which prioritized national security over individual liberties, especially for non-citizens.
- Labor unrest and strikes involving a significant portion of the workforce posed real eco ...
Actionables
- you can review your own assumptions about people from different backgrounds by keeping a week-long journal of every time you notice yourself making a snap judgment about someone’s beliefs or intentions, then reflect on whether those judgments were based on evidence or association.
- a practical way to support fair treatment in your community is to learn about local organizations that provide legal aid to immigrants and write a short, supportive note or email to their staff, acknowledging the importance of due process and civil liberties.
- you can challenge sensational ...
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Erosion of Civil Liberties and Due Process For Ellis Island Immigrants and Detainees
Ellis Island stands as a stark symbol of both the hope offered by American immigration and the erosion of civil liberties that many immigrants and detainees faced. Through the tenure of Commissioner Howe and the experiences of individuals like Gemma Zatello, the deeply flawed systems of exclusion, arbitrary detention, and loss of due process become clear.
Ellis Island's Commissioner Howe Improved Immigrant Conditions (1913-1919), but Was Overwhelmed by Its Detention Center Transformation
Howe Improved Detained Immigrants' Living Conditions By Introducing Magazines, Toys, Sewing Materials, Seating, Playgrounds, Educational Programs, Concerts, and Decorations in the Great Hall to Address Their Idleness
Upon his arrival, Commissioner Howe was deeply troubled by the conditions he witnessed at Ellis Island. Nightly, immigrants endured overcrowded dormitories and slept on three-tier bunk beds; by day, they sat for hours on hard benches with nothing to do. Howe called it "the dreadful idleness of these poor people" and took steps to improve their daily lives. He distributed magazines, toys, and sewing materials, introduced outdoor seating and playgrounds, and launched educational programs and concerts. He decorated the Great Hall with potted plants and paintings of American historical events to create a more humane environment.
Howe Struggled to Accept the Facility's Conversion Into a Military Detention Center and Called the Lack of Due Process for German Detainees Abhorrent to His Legal Ethics
Despite these reforms, Howe struggled with Ellis Island’s shift into a military detention center during wartime. He was particularly disturbed by the lack of due process for German detainees, which he considered abhorrent to his legal ethics and personal sense of justice.
Immigration Inspectors Could Exclude or Detain Immigrants Based On Subjective Assessments and Minimal Evidence, Violating Basic Legal Protections
Ellis Island’s procedures left immigrants vulnerable to subjective decisions by inspectors and federal officials, who could exclude or detain individuals with little due process and on minimal evidence.
Federal Law Used Arbitrary Questions to Assess Immigrants' Mental Fitness
Inspectors assessed mental fitness by asking immigrants to count backwards from 20, name the months of the year, or identify their home country’s capital. Failing these tests could result in exclusion under a federal law targeting those deemed "feeble-minded" or otherwise unfit.
19-year-Old Italian Immigrant Gemma Zatello Deemed Feeble-Minded, Stranded At Ellis Island; Family Admitted Despite Father's Appeal to President Wilson
Nineteen-year-old Italian immigrant Gemma Zatello arrived in February 1916 with her mother and four siblings, hoping to reunite with her father in Ohio. After failing the inspectors’ tests, Gemma was labeled an imbecile and denied entry. Her father, Salvatore, traveled to New York and pleaded her case, but Howe refused to intervene, citing Gemma’s mental incapacity as obvious. After months of detention and the tragic death of the youngest Zatello child from meningitis, officials admitted Gemma’s family—leaving her stranded at Ellis Island. Deportations to the Mediterranean being suspended due to the war, Gemma could not be sent back and was eventually transferred to a smaller center in New Jersey, where she wrote to her father about the lack of proper clothing and shoes. Salvatore’s appeals, including a letter to President Wilson, went unanswered as the world focused on the escalating conflict.
Authorities Detained Suspected Radicals At Ellis Island Indefinitely, Withholding Evidence and Charges Based On Associations
A diverse group of immigrants, foreign visitors, political dissidents, and refugees could be detained at Ellis Island for indefinite periods—sometimes weeks, months, or even years—while officials withheld evidence or charges, often based solely on associations or suspicions. In one instance, authorities arrested 600 people and detained them at Ellis Island. The New York Times observed, “for the time being, New York has a concentration camp of its own… Now it seems to be little more than an island prison, where secrecy reigns and civil liberties have all but disappeared."
Ellis Island's Shift to a Detention Facility Removed Protections for Vulnerable Groups, Including Nursing M ...
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Erosion of Civil Liberties and Due Process For Ellis Island Immigrants and Detainees
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Counterarguments
- Commissioner Howe’s reforms, while limited, represented a significant improvement over previous conditions and demonstrated a genuine effort to humanize the detention experience within the constraints of the era’s laws and resources.
- The use of subjective assessments and minimal evidence for exclusion reflected prevailing scientific and social beliefs of the early 20th century, which, while flawed by modern standards, were widely accepted at the time.
- The transformation of Ellis Island into a detention center during wartime was influenced by national security concerns and government policies enacted in response to global conflict, not solely by the actions of Ellis Island officials.
- The indefinite detention of suspected radicals and political dissidents was part of broader national trends during periods of heightened fear, such as World War I and the Red Scare, and not unique to Ellis Island.
- The quota system and exclusionary practices were the result of federal immigration laws passed by Congress, reflecting the po ...
Actionables
- you can review the intake or onboarding processes at organizations you interact with (like schools, clubs, or volunteer groups) and suggest simple, fairer alternatives to subjective or arbitrary screening questions, such as using clear checklists or transparent criteria instead of open-ended or confusing prompts.
- a practical way to support vulnerable newcomers in your community is to create a welcome note or resource sheet in multiple languages that explains local rights, available support, and how to appeal unfair decisions, then offer to share it at places like libraries, community centers, or places of worship.
- you can write a letter to yo ...
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Ellis Island: From Immigration Gateway to Detention Center to Historical Monument
Ellis Island: Key U.S. Immigration Port for 25 Years Until War and Politics Altered Its Role
Ellis Island Was the Main U.S. Entry Port For Immigrants From 1892 to 1917
For the first 25 years of its existence, Ellis Island served as the principal port of entry for immigrants to the United States. More than 12 million people entered America through its gates, seeking a new life and contributing to the nation's identity as a land of immigrants.
WWI and the 1917 Bolshevik Revolution Turned Ellis Island Into a Detention Center for Political Radicals and Enemy Aliens
As World War I broke out and the 1917 Bolshevik Revolution rocked Russia, fears about foreigners and radicals swept the U.S. In response, authorities transformed Ellis Island from a welcoming gateway into a detention center. German immigrants and suspected political radicals were held behind its doors, and many were deported back to their homelands. Anti-immigrant hysteria fundamentally changed the island's mission during this period.
Shift From Processing To Detention and Deportation In 1920s
Immigrants Began Completing Paperwork and Medical Exams Abroad For U.S. Visas In 1925
By 1925, changes in U.S. policy required immigrants to complete paperwork and medical examinations before leaving their countries of origin. Successful applicants received visas from U.S. consular offices, which also enforced strict immigration quotas.
Change in Immigration Procedures Left Ellis Island Resembling a Deserted Village By 1924
These new procedures rendered Ellis Island largely obsolete. By 1924, the Secretary of Labor described it as looking like a deserted village. Inspectors at Ellis Island no longer needed to guard America's gates, and a 1927 magazine questioned whether it was time to scrap the facility altogether.
Ellis Island: Detention and Deportation Facility During WWII and Cold War, Declined Due to Immigration Quotas
Immigration Plummets: 1931 Sees More Departures Than Arrivals Due to Quotas and Depression
The 1930s brought even more profound changes. Immigration dropped to its lowest in a century, driven by quota laws and the Great Depression. In 1931, for the first time in American history, more people left the country than arrived.
Eisenhower Admin Announces 1954 Closure of Ellis Island; Detainees Released On Parole Unless Security Risks
By the 1950s, Ellis Island served primarily as a detention and deportation facility during World War II and the early Cold War. In November 1954, the Eisenhower administration announced a shift: only detainees considered flight risks or security threats would be held, while others would be released on parole until their cases were heard. The closure of several government detention centers, including Ellis Island, was ordered.
Ellis Island Closed On November 12, 1954, With a Norwegian Fisherman as the Last Detainee
On November 12, 1954, Ellis Island closed its doors. A Norwegian fisherman who had overstayed his shore leave was the final detainee; officials released him on the condition that he return to his ship and go home.
Ellis Island Deteriorated Post-Closure but Was Preserved As a Historical Monument Through Federal Restoration
Facility Decayed Post-Closure as Vandals Stole Doorknobs, Rain Damaged Buildings, and Weeds Sprouted Through Floors
After its closure, the abandoned facility fell into disrepair. Vandals stole doorknobs and filing cabinets, rain and snow blew in through broken windows, and weeds sprouted over the floors.
1965 Proclamation Placed Ellis Island Under National Park Service Control
In 1965, President Lyndon B. Johnson issued a proclamation placing Ellis Isl ...
Here’s what you’ll find in our full summary
Ellis Island: From Immigration Gateway to Detention Center to Historical Monument
Additional Materials
Counterarguments
- While Ellis Island processed over 12 million immigrants, the majority of immigrants to the U.S. before 1892 and after 1924 entered through other ports or means, so its centrality to the entire American immigrant experience can be overstated.
- The narrative of Ellis Island as a symbol of hope and the American Dream can overshadow the significant suffering, discrimination, and family separations experienced by many immigrants processed or detained there.
- The focus on Ellis Island may marginalize the experiences of immigrants who entered through other ports, over land borders, or during periods not covered by Ellis Island’s operation.
- The transformation of Ellis Island into a museum and monument has sometimes been criticized for sanitizing or romanticizing the harsh realities of U.S. immigration policy and enforcement.
- The restoration and commemoration of Ellis Island primarily reflect the experiences of European immigrants, potentially neglecting the stories of immigrants from Asia, Latin America, Africa, and other re ...
Actionables
- you can create a personal timeline that traces your own family's or community's migration, movement, or major transitions, noting key events, challenges, and turning points, to better understand how historical shifts in policy and public sentiment might have shaped those experiences
- Map out when and why your family or community moved, what obstacles they faced (such as paperwork, quotas, or prejudice), and how those moments compare to broader historical events like wars, economic downturns, or changes in immigration law.
- a practical way to connect with the symbolism of Ellis Island is to write a letter to a future generation describing what you hope they learn from stories of migration, resilience, and adaptation
- Share personal reflections on perseverance, the meaning of belonging, and the importance of welcoming newcomers, drawing parallels betwe ...
Get access to the context and additional materials
1-Page Summary- Xenophobic and Eugenic Immigration Restrictions (1917-1924)
- Wartime and Cold War Detention of "Enemy Aliens"
- Red Scare: Anti-Immigrant Hysteria, Fears of Political Radicalism, Mass Deportations of Suspected Anarchists, Communists
- Erosion of Civil Liberties and Due Process For Ellis Island Immigrants and Detainees
- Ellis Island: From Immigration Gateway to Detention Center to Historical Monument
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