PDF Summary:Underland, by Robert Macfarlane

Lurking beneath the surface of our world lies the underland—a mysterious realm concealing wondrous secrets, forgotten remnants, and sublime marvels. In Underland, Robert Macfarlane takes readers on an extraordinary journey through these subterranean depths, exploring the profound connectivity among Earth's hidden processes and humanity's enigmatic relationship with the subterranean.

Within this masterfully condensed account, Macfarlane navigates harrowing tales of cave explorers trapped underground, the ominous science behind burying nuclear waste, and enchanting artistic renderings inspired by the sublimity of cave interiors. By chronicling humankind's relentless fascination with the underland throughout history, he unearthed profound insights into our inherent quest for knowledge and our intrinsic bond with our planet's mysterious, enthralling underbelly.

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The underland functions as a repository for hazardous materials, including waste that possesses radioactive characteristics.

Macfarlane delves into the moral quandaries and continuous risks linked to nuclear waste disposal, pondering our duty to safeguard those who will come after us, the enduring obligation involved in upholding this duty, and the challenge of devising a method of alert that can withstand the test of time. He recounts his visit to Onkalo in Finland, a subterranean facility designed to safeguard highly hazardous nuclear refuse for a duration that is expected to outlast the existence of human societies and persist across multiple ice ages. The author examines the collaborative efforts of the US Department of Energy, the Environmental Protection Agency, and academic experts in the nascent field during the 1980s and 1990s to devise a communication strategy that would prevent future civilizations from accidentally encountering these repositories of the most dangerous materials ever produced by humans. He contemplates the dangers that might emerge if the materials buried deep within the planet are accidentally exposed or unearthed too soon.

Exploring the underland has yielded significant findings relevant to the scientific fields of geology and ecology.

The investigation probes into our planet's past through the examination of layered rock structures, remnants of ancient organisms, and ice cores obtained from glaciers.

Macfarlane emphasizes the importance of the underland in revealing knowledge about Earth's history and the interconnectedness of its diverse ecological systems. Robert Macfarlane, joined by Christopher Toth, delved into the depths of the Boulby dark-matter laboratory and learned about the halite formations that underpin the facility, created by the desiccation of a massive inland sea in the north 250 million years prior. Robert Macfarlane explores the work of geologists who chart the intricate pathways of the subterranean 'starless river,' referred to as the River Timavo, in Italy's Carso region, and shares his own encounters in the submerged realms at the foot of the Trebiciano Abyss, where the relentless flow of water through the ages has sculpted shadowy sand dunes.

Exploring ecological mechanisms like the mycelial webs linking flora

Exploring Epping Forest with the up-and-coming botanist Merlin Sheldrake, Macfarlane examines the intricate interdependent associations of mycorrhizal fungi that create a web of connectivity across the ecosystem, enabling the transfer of nutrients and information between various plant species. These networks play a crucial role in reinforcing Earth's structural stability and fostering a web of ecological interconnectivity that transcends the constant competition suggested by Darwin's theory, as well as improving the forest's resilience to the impacts of climate change.

Analyzing how glaciers flow and diminish to predict future climatic shifts.

Traveling with Helen and Matt Spenceley, Macfarlane traversed the expansive glaciers of Greenland, observing the swift thawing of the ice and the immense scale of the terrain. He narrates his time with the British Antarctic Survey, detailing a lone vial containing quartz particles polished by the wind, collected moments before securing the final core sample, on the verge of the drill touching the underlying bedrock after penetrating 950 meters of ice. The territory that is currently buried under a kilometer of Antarctic ice once resembled a desert as expansive as the Sahara. A scientist specializing in the study of glaciers at BAS, Robert Mulvaney, speaks about employing deep ice cores to examine historical climate patterns and to forecast future climatic shifts.

Other Perspectives

• While the underland is indeed a valuable resource for scientific exploration, it is also important to consider the ethical and environmental implications of underground exploration and the potential disruption to ecosystems.
• The focus on dark matter and sub-atomic particles, while important, may overshadow other critical areas of scientific inquiry that are more directly related to immediate human concerns, such as sustainable resource management and climate change mitigation.
• The use of the underland for studying cosmic phenomena might be seen as a significant investment in resources that could be debated when considering other pressing scientific and social issues.
• The silence of the underland is beneficial for certain types of research, but it is also important to recognize the limitations and challenges of conducting experiments in such remote and inaccessible locations.
• Mining operations, while necessary for resource extraction, often come with substantial environmental costs, and the long-term sustainability of such practices is a matter of ongoing concern and debate.
• The development of subterranean areas for storage, especially of hazardous materials, raises questions about long-term safety, potential contamination, and the ethics of leaving such legacies for future generations.
• The use of the underland as a repository for hazardous materials, including radioactive waste, is controversial, and alternative waste management strategies may be proposed to minimize the risks associated with underground storage.
• While significant findings in geology and ecology have been made through underland exploration, there is a counterargument that some of these explorations can be invasive and may disturb ancient and fragile underground ecosystems.
• The study of mycelial webs and their ecological importance is a growing field, but there may be alternative views on the extent of their impact and the best methods for studying and preserving these networks.
• Predicting future climatic shifts based on glacial flow analysis is complex and uncertain, and there are differing opinions on the reliability of these predictions and the models used to generate them.

The subterranean realm plays a crucial role across diverse cultural, historical, and scientific contexts, shaping human pursuits, molding our perspectives, and connecting us with the natural environment.

The hidden domains and differing scales of time beneath the Earth's surface provoke a reevaluation of our spatial and temporal understanding, urging us to consider the moral legacies we are destined to pass down to future generations.

Throughout the ages, the underland has functioned as a sanctuary, a concealed zone, and a location for the extraction of resources.

Ancient civilizations sculpted subterranean sanctuaries, urban settlements, and sepulchral chambers.

Macfarlane demonstrates that humans have continually engaged with the world beneath the surface for functional, ritualistic, and sacred purposes. These practices include the establishment of underground sanctuaries and the early construction of sepulchral chambers. He recounts the sanctification of a cave near Trieste as a sacred place of worship for Mithras, a god esteemed by military personnel, a tradition that persisted for over three hundred years during the dominion of the Roman Empire. He also discusses the uncovering of a vast subterranean metropolis in Derinkuyu, Turkey, built millennia ago, with the capacity to house up to 20,000 people.

During the medieval era, underground spaces provided refuge during conflicts and housed catacombs as well as places for interment.

Macfarlane delves into the history of underground catacombs, created during the medieval period as repositories for the deceased urban residents, and examines the use of underground rooms and passageways as refuges during wartime. As the eighteenth century unfolded, the quarries beneath Paris transformed into catacombs due to the over-saturation of the ground above with the remains of the dead. In the narrative, it is detailed how, throughout the Second World War, the Parisian catacombs were utilized by the Resistance as covert sanctuaries and were subsequently transformed by the Nazis into bomb shelters.

Contemporary underground networks serve not only as conduits for transportation but are also essential for warehousing commodities and bolstering military activities.

In contemporary settings, Macfarlane investigates the diverse adaptations of the underland, which now facilitate transit, safeguarding, and the containment of various items. He depicts the extensive networks of underground transportation, encompassing the London Underground and the metro systems of New York and other major cities, which extend for thousands of miles. Macfarlane explores the utilization of contemporary tunnels for the transportation of individuals, merchandise, and armaments through or beneath heavily fortified frontiers, with a notable focus on regions within Western Asia.

The underland serves as a wellspring for the creative and cultural expression.

Ancient drawings within caves serve as evidence of early human interactions with underground environments.

Our fascination with the underground world has been ongoing, as evidenced by the unearthing of ancient cave paintings that are 65,000 years old. The lasting impact of human creations beneath the earth's surface marks their journey across the ages. These regions also suggest symbolic importance, with interactions therein helping to conduct rituals and forge connections. Macfarlane accentuates the allure and enigma of these artistic creations.

Stories frequently depict metaphorical journeys into the underground worlds.

Macfarlane explores how the underland is often depicted in literature and folklore as a place brimming with magic or peril. These narratives express deep-seated human apprehensions about death, the loss of treasured items, and the formidable forces residing deep within the Earth. He explores the common theme of journeys into the underworld that is a distinguishing feature of classical literature. Characters such as Aeneas, along with Eurydice and Orpheus, are mentioned. He explores the 19th-century obsession with a 'hollow Earth,' connecting it to the anxiety about Earth's limited resources and the modern distress resulting from their swift and unyielding exploitation.

Contemporary art and cinema explore themes connected with the mysterious elements of confinement and the profound recesses of the human mind.

Macfarlane explores how modern art and film employ underground locales to probe feelings of fear, discomfort, madness, and the complex layers of human awareness. In the 1990s, an unusual subterranean movie theater in Paris showcased films including Kubrick's 2001: A Space Odyssey, Tarkovsky’s Stalker, Lynch’s Eraserhead, and Vertov's cinematic masterpiece Man with a Movie Camera.

A realm exists below us, showcasing the interconnectedness of Earth's processes and the vast spans of time across which the natural world functions.

Exploring the complex interconnections among geological, hydrological, and ecological components

Macfarlane suggests that by observing from the vantage point of the underland, it becomes strikingly clear how interconnected the geological, hydrological, and biological systems of our Earth are. Water erosion persistently carves out caves in the limestone. As they advance, glaciers slowly carve their way across the bedrock. The symbiotic relationship between tree roots and mycelial networks. The effects of earthquakes and volcanic activity upon landscapes. Macfarlane argues that the perception of our planet as unchanging or merely a backdrop for human activity is challenged by witnessing the slow yet vast interplays of force and development.

The enduring influence of human actions on the Earth continues to be a point of contemplation.

Macfarlane feels a strong attraction to the subterranean world, which leads him to ponder the consequences of what Jedidiah Purdy calls 'our age of planetary change'. He underscores the lasting impact of mining, atomic explosions, and the management of refuse, recognizing their prolonged influence on Earth's environment. Macfarlane describes the “gruffy ground” of the Mendips, a landscape visibly disrupted and contaminated by Bronze Age and Roman lead mining. He also delves into the environmental threat that Camp Century, an American military base in Greenland that was once secret and is now at risk of releasing toxic and radioactive substances into the environment after being buried in ice for nearly fifty years, might unleash.

Humanity's influence is reevaluated, recognizing nature's power alongside the concept that our current epoch is defined by the impact of human actions.

Macfarlane conveys the idea that the immense power and scale of the underland challenge the belief in human dominance of the Earth's systems. Macfarlane reflects on the immensity of Greenland's Inner Ice cap and the adjacent ocean, dotted with icebergs, pondering if the idea that we are in a human-dominated geological epoch represents a mild form of self-absorption or, at its worst, a perilous degree of self-centeredness. He reflects on whether it is fitting to regard the current epoch as one marked by the vanishing of numerous species, places, and human lifestyles, and ponders the creation of a lexicon that adequately conveys the grief tied to these losses. He comes to realize that exploring the underland alters our perspective, prompting a reevaluation of how we interact with the Earth's extensive history, its ecological functions, and potentially our own identity as a species.

Other Perspectives

• While ancient civilizations did create subterranean structures, it's important to recognize that not all cultures placed the same emphasis on underground spaces, and some may have had different interpretations of their significance.
• The use of underground spaces during medieval times for refuge and interment could be seen as a necessity rather than a deliberate cultural or spiritual choice, driven by practical considerations such as space constraints or defensive needs.
• Contemporary underground networks, while crucial for modern infrastructure, also raise concerns about environmental impact, urban sprawl, and the displacement of communities during their construction.
• The interpretation of ancient cave paintings is subject to debate, and some scholars may argue that we cannot fully understand the intentions or meanings behind these artworks due to the vast temporal and cultural distances.
• The depiction of underground worlds in stories and literature may not always be metaphorical or symbolic; in some cases, they could simply be fantastical elements designed to entertain or thrill rather than convey deeper meanings.
• Modern art and cinema's exploration of underground themes might not always be profound or connected to the human psyche; sometimes, these settings are chosen for their aesthetic or atmospheric qualities rather than their psychological implications.
• The interconnectedness of Earth's processes is a complex topic, and while the underland provides a unique perspective, it is only one part of a much larger environmental system that includes the atmosphere, oceans, and surface ecosystems.
• The narrative of human actions having enduring influences on the Earth could be complemented by acknowledging the resilience of nature and its capacity to recover and adapt to changes over time.
• The idea that our current epoch is defined by human actions, while widely accepted in the scientific community, is still debated, with some arguing that natural processes continue to play a dominant role in shaping the Earth's future.

The underland acts as a vault for hidden histories, environmental transformations, and historical wounds, and it also plays a crucial role in contemporary ecological and social issues.

The author reflects on the underland's role as a repository for individual and collective memories, as well as a landscape where joy and strife persist in the natural world.

The underland serves as a vault for memories that include individual experiences and shared historical events.

Cemeteries reflect societal beliefs about death and the enigmas that ensue.

Macfarlane depicts the ways in which cultural rituals surrounding the burial of their deceased manifest their beliefs and customs related to death and remembrance. He explores Aveline's Hole, a cavern in the Mendip region that has served as a final resting place since the Mesolithic period, more than 10,000 years in the past, and examines the Priddy Nine Barrows, a collection of age-old tombs where solitary interments were discovered with ritualistic objects such as amber-tipped pins and decorative elements made from jet and shale. The writer argues that the methods, sites, and rituals we employ to lay the dead to rest mirror our desire to preserve elements of the departed and their enduring impacts.

Abandoned structures and relics that reveal the cultures and communities that had faded from recollection.

Macfarlane delves into the remnants of abandoned settlements and traces of bygone ways of living, emphasizing the lives and eventual deaths of those who labored and met their end beneath the earth's surface. He narrates the story of a small, isolated group of thirty-eight people residing in the Refsvika area of the Lofotens, who maintained a life of seclusion until the push towards modernity resulted in their assimilation with the broader community on the mainland of Norway. Macfarlane scrutinizes the layout of these dwellings, many of which have been reduced to a solitary stratum of stones blanketed in lichen. He observes the pathway connecting the dwellings around the settlement's inlet, carefully noting the otters and other creatures that assiduously preserve it.

As time moves forward, remnants of bygone clashes and upheavals that had been buried are now reemerging.

The underland, explored by Macfarlane, frequently harbors the echoes of past conflicts. He recounts his exploration of a cave in the Slovenian Highlands, a location that was a witness to numerous killings during and in the aftermath of the Second World War, encircled by a beech forest. He recites a poem attached to a tree trunk overlooking a steep, slender ravine, recounting a harrowing tale of lives lost during the foiba massacres and ending with a poignant recognition that the victims were individuals no different from ourselves. The foiba stands as a poignant emblem of mankind's capacity for cruelty and the challenges inherent in confronting unsettling events from the past, encapsulating how the terrain once concealed acts of aggression, only to eventually expose them.

Ethical considerations arise when considering how to discard waste beneath the Earth's surface.

Subterranean vaults are utilized for the containment of hazardous radioactive substances.

Macfarlane scrutinizes the construction of Onkalo, an underground repository in Finland designed for the containment of nuclear waste, interpreting its emergence as a powerful emblem of an era marked by significant human impact on Earth's geology and ecosystems. At Onkalo, sophisticated waste containment processes are utilized, where depleted uranium is encased in zirconium rods, which are then placed within a copper container. This container is further enclosed by an iron one, and it is this iron container that is surrounded by multiple layers of bentonite clay, which are finally embedded deep within the bedrock of the geological repository. Robert Macfarlane imparts the profound experience of being immersed in the deepest parts of the facility, surrounded by the immense weight of historical and geological importance.

The persistent responsibility and risk involved in isolating hazardous materials from the vibrant ecosystems that make up the Earth.

Macfarlane emphasizes the persistent dangers and responsibilities associated with the elimination of hazardous waste, which not only could lead to contamination in the future but also presents challenges in communicating cautions to those who will come after us. The author contends that devising a communication method to alert future civilizations about dangers is nearly inconceivable, given that the peril outlasts the longevity of any known language, owing to the prolonged durations and complex transformations that radioactive substances undergo.

Alerting future generations to concealed dangers presents a significant challenge.

Macfarlane contemplates the formidable challenge of creating a reliable set of indicators for underground waste repositories, an endeavor Gregory Benford has characterized as our civilization's most extensive attempt to communicate warnings regarding their perilous contents to far-future descendants. Macfarlane explores the contributions of American semioticians from the 1980s and 1990s, investigating their array of proposed methods, ranging from creating patterns intended to discourage and repulse to 'transcendental signifiers' that included auditory or visual cues crafted to evoke an enduring feeling of dread, exemplified by a sculptural representation of an expression of terror that is universally understood. Macfarlane observes that, paradoxically, the presence of a warning or barrier can intensify the allure of the forbidden, making it more tempting.

The current geological epoch reveals how human activity impacts the fragile equilibrium of the planet's systems, as uncovered by the underland.

As glaciers retreat, they unveil hidden terrain and discharge age-old carbon.

The recent discovery of age-old terrains in Greenland, which had been hidden for millennia, is chronicled by the author due to the swift and severe melting of the ice. He details the emergence of a new geological structure at the edge where the glacier breaks off, resulting in the establishment of a base camp on a rocky outcrop that had emerged from under the ice just two years prior due to accelerated melting.

The release of methane and the thawing of permafrost pose a significant risk to the stability of communities and their surrounding ecosystems.

Macfarlane highlights the alarming outcomes resulting from the thawing of ancient ice, such as the emergence of anthrax from reindeer remains interred long ago in the superficial graves of the Arctic tundra. He portrays the immense fissure in the Siberian tundra, known for rapidly swallowing trees, as an entrance to the world beneath the surface. The writer argues that these occurrences demonstrate the enduring influence of human activity on the planet and the unforeseen consequences that ensue, emphasizing the paradox that our attempts to steer the course of this epoch are deeply intertwined with the very dynamics that drive it onward.

The subterranean realm exemplifies the interconnection between human endeavors and environmental transformations.

Macfarlane highlights how the Earth's systems are intricately linked when viewed from the vantage point of the subterranean world, noting that our current choices will leave a lasting legacy, molding habitats and biological networks in unforeseeable ways. He recounts the way numerous forsaken vehicles were cast into the depths of a once-operational slate quarry in Wales, where over time, these vehicles became enmeshed with the layers of geological history, epitomizing the immense 'empire of things' that emerges from and outlasts human efforts in our present epoch marked by significant human impact. He also reflects on the ways in which beach wrack is changing, now that washed-up plastic objects outnumber animal matter such as shells and seaweed, and he discusses the recent geological discovery of 'plastiglomerate'—a sturdy amalgam that incorporates sand, shells, and other substances, typically found at locations where plastic has fused with the natural environment. The author utilizes the notion of the underland as a means to explore and make clear the intricate web of connections that shape our understanding of nature, geological structures, social constructs, and personal consciousness.

Practical Tips

• You can explore local history by visiting nearby historical sites and landmarks to better understand the layers of history beneath your feet. By doing this, you'll gain a personal connection to the assertions about hidden histories and environmental transformations. For example, if there's an old battlefield or a historical monument in your area, take a day to visit and research its significance, which may include its ecological impact or its role in shaping local culture.
• Start a memory capsule project with friends or family to engage with the idea of the underland as a repository for memories. Gather items that represent personal or collective memories, such as photos, letters, or small mementos, and bury them in a biodegradable container in your backyard. This act mirrors the concept of the underland holding memories and allows you to create a physical representation of the passage of time and the preservation of history.
• Participate in a citizen science project that monitors local environmental changes, like tracking the retreat of glaciers or the effects of thawing permafrost if you live in a relevant area. Many projects allow volunteers to contribute data through simple observations or using smartphone apps. This hands-on activity connects you to the idea of the interplay between human actions and environmental transformations, and you'll contribute valuable data that can help scientists understand these processes.