PDF Summary:Tutankhamun and the Tomb that Changed the World, by Bob Brier

In the early 1900s, explorers began a quest to discover the tomb of Egypt's boy-king, Tutankhamun. Tutankhamun and the Tomb that Changed the World by Bob Brier details the discovery, excavation, and analysis of Tutankhamun's tomb—and what it revealed about the ancient ruler.

The book covers the challenges faced by archaeologists Howard Carter and Lord Carnarvon in excavating and preserving the delicate tomb artifacts. It also examines inscriptions and texts within the tomb, shedding light on Egyptian funerary practices and religious beliefs. The author draws from scientific analysis to reconstruct Tutankhamun's ancestry and theorize about his health, death, and interests based on objects found in the tomb.

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• Carter's relationship with the Antiquities authorities and journalists might have been strained, but it could also have provided an opportunity for him to develop his own negotiating skills and establish direct connections.
• There might have been other individuals involved in the excavation who also played significant roles in liaising with the Antiquities authorities, thereby reducing the impact of Carnarvon's absence.
• The notion of skill in negotiation can be subjective; what is considered skilled by some may be viewed as overly accommodating or compromising by others.
• Relying on a single patron for financial support could be risky, as it may not provide a sustainable or diversified funding base for long-term research and excavation.

Translating and Deciphering the Tomb's Texts and Inscriptions

Significance of Pyramid, Coffin, and Papyrus Texts

Egyptian Afterlife Beliefs and Resurrection Rituals

This section begins with Brier’s intriguing argument that Tutankhamun's four golden shrines substitute for the Egyptian afterlife text. The book was first developed during the Old Kingdom, when magical spells were inscribed in the pyramids to help the king ascend to heaven. These came to be called “Pyramid Texts.” Generally, the texts deal with the king’s ascent to heaven to join the gods. The magic behind them derives from the notion that speaking makes it happen.

When the Old Kingdom collapsed, the First Intermediate Period—a time marked by chaos—began, and pyramids were robbed and looted. Now the enchantments were visible to commoners, and soon the nobles took the spells for their own. During the Middle Kingdom, these spells began to appear on coffins' exteriors and interiors and thus are referred to as "Coffin Texts." These texts were carried over to the period of the New Kingdom, where they appeared on the papyrus rolls inside the noblemen’s coffins, which came to be called the "Funerary Papyrus." Unlike the pharaohs, the elite lacked miles of tomb walls to inscribe with magic incantations, so they had their spells written on these rolls, which became a guide for their path through the afterlife.

Practical Tips

• Engage in a creative project that symbolizes your life's milestones, akin to the storytelling nature of Tutankhamun's shrines. This could be a series of paintings, a collection of poems, or a homemade documentary. The aim is to create a tangible representation of your life's journey that can be shared with others or reflected upon privately.
• Write a daily intention or affirmation that aligns with your aspirations. Taking inspiration from the purposeful inscriptions of the pyramids, start each day by writing down a short, powerful statement that sets your intention or affirms your journey towards personal growth. Place it somewhere you'll see it throughout the day, like on your bathroom mirror or as a phone wallpaper.
• Design a set of symbolic gestures or movements to accompany your spoken words, enhancing the physical embodiment of your aspirations. This could involve a simple sequence of hand movements or postures that you perform while reciting your mantra. The physical act, paired with your words, can help to solidify your commitment and make the practice more impactful. Imagine, for instance, raising your hands skyward as you speak about reaching new heights in your career.
• Engage with the past by participating in a local archaeological or historical society's public dig day, if available. This hands-on experience can give you a literal feel for uncovering hidden history, akin to the commoners seeing the enchantments. You'll learn how artifacts are discovered, handled, and interpreted, which can deepen your understanding of the process that brings hidden histories to light.
• Create a "Chaos Kit" filled with items and notes that symbolize resilience and adaptability for you. This kit can serve as a physical representation of your ability to adapt to change, much like the nobles' use of spells. Include items that remind you of past successes, motivational quotes, or even a list of skills you've adapted to overcome previous challenges. When faced with a new chaotic situation, use the kit to remind yourself of your adaptability.
• Design a piece of art or craft that incorporates symbols or hieroglyphs from the Coffin Texts. Use online hieroglyph translators to understand the meanings and create a visual representation that can be displayed in your home. This could be a painting, a piece of embroidered fabric, or a sculpted item that serves as a conversation starter about the historical significance and personal interpretation of these ancient symbols.
• Start a creative project that involves writing or illustrating a story set in the New Kingdom of Egypt, using the idea of the Funerary Papyrus as a central element. This could be a short story, a comic, or even a series of illustrations that explore the cultural significance of these texts and their role in the lives of noblemen.
• Host a "Life Journey" exchange dinner with friends or family. Taking a cue from the concept of the afterlife journey, organize a gathering where each person shares their own "Life Papyrus" – a roadmap of where they've been and where they hope to go. This can foster deeper connections, provide mutual support, and offer diverse perspectives on navigating life's challenges and opportunities. It's a chance to learn from each other's experiences and wisdom, much like how ancient texts shared knowledge across generations.
• Start a "legacy project" by recording voice memos or writing letters to your future self or loved ones, sharing wisdom, experiences, and hopes. This modern take on the funerary papyrus concept allows you to leave a personal mark and can be done using a smartphone for voice recordings or any writing medium for letters.

Tutankhamun's Tomb: A Functional 'Guidebook'

Brier argues that the building of Tutankhamun’s tomb was rushed. When the boy-king died at approximately nineteen years old, the normal convention of preparing a tomb for the pharaoh over decades was no longer an option, and he was interred in a small, unfinished tomb originally meant for another. This meant the area wasn't big enough for magical spells to be painted onto the walls. Instead, he had his spells inscribed on his four nested shrines, starting with the innermost shrine, just outside his coffin.

The purpose of these spells is to transport him safely to the afterlife with Osiris, the deity associated with the dead. The spells do far more than provide passwords necessary to pass demon-guarded gates; they also make use of ancient Egyptian myths (Isis and Osiris) to guide the king through perils of the underworld. The spells on the shrines thus reveal the logical structure of Egyptian afterlife beliefs and provide a step-by-step plan for a safe journey.

Other Perspectives

• The use of an existing tomb might have been a practical decision reflecting the political or economic climate of the period, rather than a consequence of an unexpected death.
• The craftsmanship and resources required to paint spells on the walls might have been unavailable or deemed less essential than ensuring the spells were included within the burial assemblage in some form.
• The focus on Osiris might overshadow the potential roles of other deities or spiritual entities in the afterlife journey according to Egyptian mythology.
• The spells may have been more symbolic than functional, serving to reassure the living about the afterlife rather than actually guiding the deceased.
• The term "logical structure" implies a coherence that may not exist; the spells could be a collection of traditions and practices that evolved over time and were not systematically organized.
• The effectiveness of the spells cannot be empirically tested, so their ability to ensure a safe journey is a matter of belief rather than demonstrable fact.

Deciphering Tomb Inscriptions: Shrines, Sarcophagus, Objects

Tutankhamun's Religious Affiliations and Changes During His Reign

This section presents evidence that during Tutankhamun's rule, religious practices from both his father’s Aten worship and the traditional religious practices of his grandfather, Amenhotep III, were present. That his innermost three burial shrines have the form of the traditional two palaces of Upper and Lower Egypt indicates that during his reign, traditional practices were being reestablished. These shapes confirm his earthly power as pharaoh, but the innermost shrine, which stands as the protective barrier to the sarcophagus, makes it clear that its purpose is to safeguard the mummy and ensure the survival of the body for the afterlife.

The shrine on the outside is shaped like the heb-sed pavilion, the structure used for the festivities that celebrated the king’s rejuvenation, indicating that the outermost shrine is the one that focuses on Tutankhamun’s resurrection in the afterlife. Inside that shrine, the rear wall shows the goddess Mehetweret, represented in cow form, who will take Tutankhamun to heaven. The shrine on the outermost layer is Tutankhamun’s victory lap. He has finished his journey to the underworld and can join the gods.

Practical Tips

• Incorporate a themed meditation practice into your routine that focuses on transition and ascension. Meditate while visualizing yourself as your chosen symbol, traversing through various stages of your life. This practice can help you gain perspective on your personal journey and foster a sense of peace and purpose as you envision your path towards your own 'heaven' or ultimate goals.

Other Perspectives

• The blending of religious practices during Tutankhamun's reign may not have been a harmonious or voluntary fusion, but rather a political necessity to appease different factions within the kingdom.
• The design of the shrines might reflect the work of artisans and priests more than the influence or power of the pharaoh himself.
• The effectiveness of the innermost shrine in ensuring the survival of the body for the afterlife could be questioned, as the preservation of the mummy might owe more to the mummification process and the arid climate of Egypt than the shrine itself.
• The shape of the outermost shrine resembling the heb-sed pavilion might not exclusively symbolize Tutankhamun's victory or completion of his journey but could also be a nod to the continuity of kingship and the pharaoh's role in maintaining ma'at (order) in the world of the living.

The Evolution of Egyptian Religious Texts and Funerary Practices

The author makes a case that the inscriptions and shapes of the four shrines reveal much about the evolution of religious texts in ancient Egypt. The texts have their origins in the Old Kingdom, when only the pharaohs had the spells, which were inscribed onto pyramid walls. Later, in the Middle Kingdom, when the commoners were exposed to these magical texts, the texts started being inscribed on coffins.

During the New Kingdom period, the texts were on papyrus rolls, creating a guide book for use in the afterlife. Tutankhamun lacks a scroll for his funerary text because he doesn’t need one. They’re inscribed on his four shrines. The fact that they begin with protections for the mummy, and then in the next (outer) shrine include spells for the voyage to the afterlife, and finally in the outermost shrine show his victory over death, reveals the logical structure of the spells and how they were expected to function. The shrines reveal how the king would first make his journey to the afterlife with Osiris, and to the celestial realm with the Divine Cow. By studying these texts, we can chart the evolution of Egypt's ancient funerary practices.

Other Perspectives

• The interpretation of the inscriptions and shapes of the shrines could be subjective, and different scholars might draw different conclusions about the evolution of religious texts.
• The term "exposed to" could imply a passive encounter with magical texts, whereas it might have been an active pursuit or a privilege that required certain qualifications or resources.
• The use of papyrus rolls for funerary texts was not uniformly applied across all social strata, and the practice may have varied depending on the wealth and status of the individual.
• The absence of a scroll could be due to other reasons, such as its loss over time or theft, rather than an intentional decision not to include one.
• The progression of spells from protections to voyage and victory over death might not necessarily reflect a logical sequence but could be a result of the spatial arrangement and limitations of the shrines.
• The assumption that the outermost shrine shows victory over death could be an oversimplification of a more complex set of religious beliefs and practices.
• The texts themselves may have been subject to scribal errors, intentional alterations, or ideological biases that could distort our understanding of the actual practices.

Revealing Details About Tutankhamun's Biography, Family, and Reign

Using Scientific Analysis to Reconstruct Tutankhamun's Ancestry

Using Genetics and Architecture to Identify Relatives of Tutankhamun

The author describes how recent DNA analysis helped establish King Tut's genealogy. For a long period, there was much speculation about Tutankhamun's lineage. When scholars were examining the treasures from Yuya and Tuya's tomb, it became clear that Queen Tiye, Amenhotep III's spouse, was their daughter.

But who Tutankhamun’s mother was remained a mystery. In the initial phases of the dig, when Carter’s excavation team opened the Treasury, they found two small coffinettes. Inside were wrapped bundles that when opened revealed two unborn girls, who were almost certainly Tutankhamun's children. Since Tut married his half-sister, Ankhesenamun, one could assume that the fetal remains were hers. Additionally, by identifying Ankhesenamun’s father, we would know who Tut’s father was, as both would presumably share a father. But we're not told who Ankhesenamun’s father was.

In an attempt to solve these mysteries, researchers from a project focused on Egyptian mummies obtained DNA from both the fetal remains and a large group of mummies that might possibly be related to Tut. The project's findings confirmed that the fetuses found in the Treasury were Tut’s children, and even established that a previously unidentified female mummy, the “Elder Lady,” was Queen Tiye, daughter of Yuya and Tuya. Of all the DNA finds, however, perhaps the most exciting discovery was the fact that the KV-55 mummy was almost certainly Akhenaten, and even more exciting was that according to the DNA, Akhenaten and one of his sisters were the parents of Tutankhamun.

Practical Tips

• Create a family tree project using online genealogy platforms. These websites often offer tools to build out your family tree, connect with distant relatives, and access historical records. By inputting known information about your family, you can start piecing together your lineage and possibly discover connections to historical figures or events.
• Host a themed dinner party where each guest represents a historical figure from the era of Queen Tiye. Encourage guests to research their character and come dressed in period attire. This immersive experience can foster a deeper appreciation for history and its influential personalities, while also providing a fun and educational social event.
• Create a time capsule for future generations by selecting items that represent your life and current events, then sealing them in a container with a set date to be opened. This mirrors the concept of finding treasures from the past and can provide insight into today's world for those who discover it years from now.
• Create a virtual timeline of ancient Egypt using free online tools. By researching different periods and significant events, you can piece together a broader picture of the era in question. This activity not only enhances your knowledge of history but also provides a visual representation that can be shared with others interested in the topic.
• Engage in a DNA ancestry test to explore genetic connections. While you may not be able to identify royal lineage like Tut's, taking a DNA test can provide insights into your ethnic makeup and potential relatives. This can be a starting point for conversations about heritage and identity within your family or social circle, and it may lead to unexpected discoveries about your own background.
• Engage with citizen science projects that focus on genetics and history. Platforms like Zooniverse allow you to participate in research by helping to classify data or transcribe historical documents. Your contributions can support the work of scientists in making new discoveries about human history, akin to the way researchers glean insights from ancient DNA.
• Engage in a creative writing project where you imagine the life of an ancestor or a historical figure you could be related to, based on the time period and locations revealed through your ancestry research. Write stories or journal entries from their perspective, incorporating historical facts and your own creative interpretation. This exercise can enhance your empathy for people of the past and provide a unique way to connect with history on a personal level.
• Start a blog or social media account dedicated to "Unsolved Histories," where you post about various historical mysteries and invite discussions and theories from followers. This encourages learning and engagement with history in a community setting, and you can use the story of the KV-55 mummy as an inaugural post to kickstart the conversation.
• Create a themed art project based on your ancestry. Inspired by the ancient Egyptian lineage discussed, you can express your heritage through art by creating a visual representation, such as a family crest or a mixed media collage that incorporates symbols and imagery relevant to your ancestors' cultures or professions.

Assessing the Health and Causes of Early Death of Tutankhamun

In this section, the author discusses how advanced scientific techniques have yielded important, but sometimes contradictory evidence about King Tutankhamun's health. In 1968, R. G. Harrison, an anatomist at Liverpool University, conducted the initial X-ray analysis of Tutankhamun’s mummy. Unfortunately, Harrison passed away prior to publishing a complete report, but early analysis of the X-rays and skeletal material suggested that Tutankhamun was roughly nineteen at the time of death and that a blow to the head may have contributed to death. Later, in 2005 and 2009, researchers from the project on Egyptian mummies performed the first CT imaging of the mummy, confirming the king's age. However, the scans disclosed several new and exciting things about Tutankhamun.

In the scans they saw indications of a clubbed foot as well as Kohler’s disease, causing some researchers to wonder if he had a limp. Some researchers have posited that the malaria they found in Tutankhamun may have contributed to his death. No consensus exists. The Egyptian team suggested that a broken leg might have led to Tutankhamun's death. However, orthopedic surgeons reviewing the scans felt that the break most likely occurred after his death. Other research suggests that Tutankhamun may have died due to complications from a crash involving a chariot. However, as the author explains, it is virtually impossible to get enough velocity in a chariot accident to cause the bone damage observed in the scan. As with other findings, this is also cursed with uncertainty.

Context

• Over the years, technological advancements have significantly improved the ability to analyze ancient remains. Techniques like X-rays, CT scans, and DNA analysis provide detailed insights that were previously unavailable, allowing researchers to explore health conditions and causes of death with greater precision.
• The suggestion of a blow to the head as a cause of death is based on interpreting skull fractures or anomalies. However, distinguishing between perimortem (around the time of death) and postmortem damage is challenging.
• Determining age at death through CT imaging involves analyzing the development and fusion of bones, particularly in the skull and long bones, which can provide clues about the individual's age at the time of death.
• Clubfoot is a congenital condition where the foot is twisted out of shape or position. It can significantly affect mobility, often requiring treatment or corrective surgery to improve function and reduce pain.
• Malaria would have been a common and serious health threat in ancient Egypt, particularly in the Nile Delta region, where the environment was conducive to mosquito breeding.
• Orthopedic surgeons specialize in the musculoskeletal system, and their expertise allows them to differentiate between injuries that occurred during life and those that happened after death based on bone healing patterns and fracture characteristics.
• Chariots were primarily used for hunting, ceremonial purposes, and warfare in ancient Egypt. They were lightweight and designed for speed and maneuverability, but the terrain and construction would limit the potential for high-speed crashes.

Examining Tomb Artifacts For Insight Into Tutankhamun's Interests and Role

Impressive Collection of Martial Equipment Suggesting Active Lifestyle

The author makes the intriguing point that a lot of the items in Tutankhamun's tomb are evidence that he was interested in hunting, and perhaps even war. While pharaohs often showed themselves in battle, they nearly always had a chariot driver. Thus, it's unclear whether Tutankhamun truly fought in battles. However, since he's depicted hunting, and he took these images with him to the afterlife, this indicates that they meant something to him and it is plausible to think that they reveal some of his interests during his brief time on earth.

Tutankhamun's tomb contained a large and varied collection of military equipment, including six chariots, archery gear, and even armor. The author is quick to point out that some chariots were for state occasions, not battle, but they were still chariots. And included in his burial were both simple bows, made from a single staff of wood, and composite bows. The composite bow is the Lamborghini of archery: complex and powerful, it’s a sign of status and prestige. Thirty of them were located in Tutankhamun’s tomb—the largest collection of composite bows ever discovered in Egypt. This alone implies that he likely enjoyed archery. Also included was the armor.

The armor was made of approximately four thousand interlocking small scales, painstakingly assembled with leather thongs, to guard the king’s torso from blows. The armor was in very poor condition when found in the tomb, but after it was transferred to the conservation center at the new museum, it was realized that the scales were arranged in alternating red and green rows. This military gear was unique: a complex, fashion-forward, and effective suit of armor. Recently, when the armor was examined under a microscope using specialized lighting, it was discovered that it showed signs of wear. This piece of equipment was highly decorated and was actually worn. Where? Possibly during combat.

Context

• Archery was a crucial skill for both hunting and military purposes. It was considered an essential part of a warrior's training, and proficiency in archery was often depicted in royal iconography to emphasize a ruler's strength and capability.
• State occasions could include religious festivals, royal processions, or diplomatic events where the pharaoh would display his grandeur and divine connection to the gods.
• Composite bows are made from multiple materials such as wood, horn, and sinew, which are glued together. This construction allows for greater flexibility and power compared to simple wooden bows.
• During Tutankhamun's time, composite bows were not only used in warfare but also symbolized power and technological advancement. They were often associated with skilled archers and elite warriors.
• The scales were typically made from materials such as bronze, copper, or leather, and were sewn onto a backing material like cloth or leather. This construction allowed for movement while offering protection against weapons.
• The alternating red and green colors of the scales could have held symbolic meaning, possibly representing power, protection, or divine favor. The use of color in armor was rare and would have set the wearer apart as someone of great importance.
• The use of microscopes and specialized lighting in examining the armor highlights modern archaeological techniques that allow researchers to uncover details invisible to the naked eye, providing insights into the past usage of artifacts.
• While pharaohs were often depicted as warriors, their actual participation in battles varied. They were seen as military leaders and protectors of Egypt, but the extent of their direct involvement in combat is debated among historians.
• The ancient Egyptians believed in an afterlife where the deceased would continue their earthly activities. Thus, images of hunting could suggest that Tutankhamun wished to continue this pursuit beyond death, highlighting its importance to him.

Tutankhamun's Hunting and Battlefield Exploits on Tomb Objects

The author uses this section to discuss how many of Tutankhamun’s possessions seem to proclaim that he was an active young man who enjoyed hunting and battle. From the bow case featuring hunting scenes and the fan commemorating a particular hunting trip to the ostrich-feather fan depicting Tutankhamun “while on a hunt in the eastern desert near Heliopolis,” Brier believes this is how Tutankhamun chose to be remembered. This conclusion seems even more plausible when we consider the fact that several blocks from Tutankhamun’s mortuary temple have been recovered that reveal scenes of the young ruler’s military prowess in combat.

These blocks were utilized to construct another pharaoh’s monument and then, several centuries later, were again repurposed to create foundations for buildings constructed during the Middle Ages in Luxor. Over the last forty years, as these buildings have been unearthed and their foundations removed, the blocks have been collected, cleaned, and carefully examined by archaeologists. The scenes on these blocks depict Tutankhamun as military leader.

From the few scenes identified, it's evident that his temple included depictions of him conquering enemies from Nubia and Syria. In one scene, he commands the Egyptian forces as they conquer a fortress in Syria. The artists who carved the scenes for the temple followed the conventions of pre-Amarna art; it was as if they were trying to recreate the art that prevailed before the Amarna Heresy. However, the author explains that there are some aspects of the artwork that seem original to the pharaoh. For example, after the defeat of the Syrians, the Egyptian military is shown returning to their homeland with their prisoners. But Tutankhamun's artists depict one Syrian prisoner confined within a cage hanging from a ship. This scene is absent from any other depictions of war. It suggests that this is what Tutankhamun did.

The author suggests that the artifacts discovered in Tutankhamun's tomb don't provide a complete portrait of the pharaoh. As new objects are unearthed and analyzed, a more detailed and complete picture will emerge.

Context

• The historical record from Tutankhamun's time is limited, and much of what is known comes from his tomb. This means interpretations are often based on incomplete evidence, and new discoveries can significantly alter our understanding.
• Ostrich feathers, often featured in hunting scenes, were symbols of truth and justice in ancient Egypt. They were associated with the goddess Ma'at, representing the pharaoh's role in upholding these principles.
• Mortuary temples were built adjacent to or near the tombs of pharaohs and were used for rituals and offerings to honor the deceased king. They often contained elaborate decorations and inscriptions that celebrated the pharaoh's achievements and divine status.
• During Tutankhamun's reign, Nubia (to the south of Egypt) and regions in Syria were significant due to their resources and strategic locations. Egypt often engaged in military campaigns to secure these areas, which were vital for trade and political influence.
• This was a revolutionary phase during the reign of Akhenaten, Tutankhamun's predecessor, where art became more naturalistic. Akhenaten introduced a new religious focus on the sun disk, Aten, and this was reflected in the art, which showed more fluid and realistic human figures.
• Artifacts can only tell part of a historical figure's story. They provide insights into the material culture and artistic conventions of the time but may not fully capture the personal achievements or daily life of the individual.