PDF Summary:Truth, by Tom Phillips

In today's world, we're surrounded by misinformation, whether through our own faulty thinking or deliberate falsehoods. In Truth by Tom Phillips, the author examines the pervasive nature of dishonesty throughout human history, from its origins in our primate ancestors to its manifestation in politics, business, and the media landscape.

Phillips argues that untruths have an innate advantage over truth, being more adaptable and easier to disseminate. By understanding the scope of this phenomenon—including the biological and psychological factors that influence how we process information—we can better combat the spread of misinformation in modern society.

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This tendency for inaccuracy becomes particularly acute when those covering events feel pressure to embellish their stories, relying on speculation to fill information gaps. The author cites the example of the Mad Gasser incident in Mattoon, where one newspaper’s use of the phrase “First Victims” in reporting an unverified incident in 1944 inadvertently instigated a weeks-long panic across the city as readers came to believe that further attacks were imminent. This example, for Phillips, illustrates journalism’s unique power in shaping “The Story” around an incident – a momentum that is difficult to counter even when the storyline is demonstrably false.

Context

• The tale reflects the societal attitudes and gender dynamics of the period, using humor and irony to highlight issues of justice and equality.
• The incident exemplifies the practice of "yellow journalism," where sensational headlines and exaggerated stories were used to increase newspaper circulation.
• After extensive investigation, the Metropolitan Police concluded in 2018 that the mutilations were likely caused by wildlife predation and vehicle accidents, not a human perpetrator.

Other Perspectives

• The cycle of misinformation is not solely the responsibility of news outlets; readers and the public also play a role in disseminating and perpetuating unverified stories.
• The practice of copying stories could be seen as a reflection of the competitive nature of journalism rather than a deliberate attempt to propagate misinformation.
• The concept of a feedback loop implies a lack of agency among journalists and editors, which may not account for the deliberate choices made by some individuals in the industry to prioritize ethical journalism and fact-checking.
• The rise of data journalism and an increased focus on empirical evidence can counteract the tendency to embellish, as stories are often grounded in hard data rather than speculation.
• Speculation can prompt further investigation and discussion, leading to a deeper understanding of the topic.
• The newspaper's report might have been a reflection of the public's concern at the time, rather than the cause of it.
• It's possible that the panic would have occurred regardless of the specific language used, given the nature of the reported incident.
• The power of journalism to shape a story is often constrained by external factors such as government censorship, corporate interests, and the legal system, which can limit the scope and angle of the coverage.
• Journalistic standards and ethics, when adhered to by reputable news organizations, serve as a safeguard against the perpetuation of false narratives.

The Role of Technologies in Amplifying and Preserving Misinformation

From the printing press to the internet, Phillips demonstrates how communication technologies don’t just amplify existing tendencies toward misinformation, but often create conditions where demonstrably false information refuses to die, despite our best efforts to correct it.

The "Citogenesis" Effect of Invalid Facts Being Validated

Phillips argues that the web, specifically sites like Wikipedia, has led to a phenomenon termed 'citogenesis,' where false information is unwittingly validated through a cycle of repetition and mutual referencing. Even when errors are corrected at the source, he notes, they often continue to spread online and in print, as people copy from each other without checking the original facts. The author cites numerous examples from Wikipedia, such as the fabricated claim that coatis are known as "Brazilian aardvarks," the erroneous crediting of the invention of the hair iron to one “Erica Feldman,” and a case where the Leveson Inquiry accidentally named a Californian student as one of the founders of the Independent newspaper based on a prank Wikipedia edit.

Practical Tips

• Start a personal blog or social media page dedicated to debunking myths in your area of interest. By actively engaging in the process of dispelling false information, you'll become more adept at recognizing citogenesis in action and contribute to creating a more informed community. For instance, if you're passionate about nutrition, you could write posts that dissect popular diet myths by tracing their origins and presenting scientific evidence.
• Develop a habit of adding a disclaimer when sharing information on social media or via email that you haven't personally verified. This could be a simple sentence such as, "I found this interesting, but I haven't had a chance to verify its accuracy." This encourages others to think critically about the information and not take it at face value.

How Falsehoods Spread Online and Become "True" Through Repetition

Phillips highlights how these dynamics of misinformation aren't exclusive to the digital era. He returns to the story of H.L. Mencken’s bathtub hoax to illustrate that a fabricated story can become accepted as fact despite the author’s best efforts to correct it. That year, Mencken, a noted journalist, published a humorous column about a fictitious inventor named Adam Thompson who brought the first bathtub to America, sparking controversy and medical panic. Mencken later admitted the story was completely made up – yet for decades following his confession, the false story of Adam Thompson’s bathtub continued to appear in newspapers, academic journals, and even government publications.

This illustrates, the author argues, that even when falsehoods are exposed, we have to combat the "ego trap" – our reluctance to admit we're wrong and the social pressures that act as barriers to correction. It's an example of the "Effort Barrier" and the "Bullshit Feedback Loop" working in tandem; we avoid doing the work of checking, and then we take repetition as confirmation even when we know better.

Context

• Humans are prone to cognitive biases such as the "illusory truth effect," where repeated exposure to a statement increases the likelihood of it being perceived as true, regardless of its actual veracity.
• H.L. Mencken was a prominent journalist and satirist in the early 20th century, known for his wit and influence on public opinion, which likely contributed to the widespread acceptance of his hoax.
• This psychological phenomenon occurs when people experience discomfort due to holding conflicting beliefs or information. Admitting a mistake can create dissonance, leading individuals to resist acknowledging errors to maintain mental harmony.
• This concept refers to the cognitive and physical effort required to verify information. People often avoid fact-checking because it demands time and energy, leading to reliance on easily accessible but potentially false information.
• The overwhelming amount of information available online can lead to cognitive overload, making it difficult for individuals to critically evaluate every piece of information they encounter.

Dishonesty in Politics, Propaganda, and Discourse

It’s not shocking that misleading people is an important tool in politics. The stakes are high, incentives for distortion are powerful, and opportunities for public manipulation through spin and persuasive tactics are readily available. As ever, what we see in our own political landscape isn't really novel; throughout history, leaders have deployed numerous tactics to persuade and mislead their citizenry, sometimes with devastating consequences.

Using Deception as a Tool of Statecraft Throughout History

While recognizing that most political figures don’t actively lie as often as we assume, the author acknowledges that political dishonesty happens—and that it really matters when it does, as it can shape public discourse and even drive nations to war. He explores several instances of leaders across time deploying deception for their political ends.

Suez Crisis and Deceit Around Military Interventions

Phillips examines the 1956 Suez Crisis as a prime illustration of how governments will use deceit to justify military action. Although British Prime Minister Anthony Eden and others repeatedly asserted that the UK was unaware of Israel’s plans to invade Egypt, it was later revealed, thanks to documents kept by Israel, that the UK, France, and Israel had planned the entire military intervention in advance. The international condemnation of what many perceived as an attempt by a fading colonial power to reassert its dominance over a region had catastrophic repercussions, leading to the resignation of Eden and a significant shift in the global political landscape.

Practical Tips

• Engage in community discussions to foster a culture of skepticism and accountability. Organize or participate in local discussion groups focused on current events, particularly those related to military actions. Use these gatherings to dissect and debate the information presented by governments, encouraging participants to bring their own research and viewpoints. This collective scrutiny can lead to a more informed public that is better equipped to hold governments accountable for their actions.
• Develop a personal "resignation threshold" by listing the values and principles that are non-negotiable for you in your professional and personal life. Determine under what circumstances you would step down or walk away from a situation that compromises those values. For instance, if honesty is a core value, decide what actions or decisions would be a deal-breaker for you at work, such as being asked to lie to a client or cover up a mistake.
• Develop critical thinking by playing "Devil's Advocate" in discussions about current affairs, challenging assumptions by asking what if the opposite were true, similar to the unexpected outcomes of the Suez Crisis. This could involve questioning the stability of international agreements or the reliability of alliances, which can lead to a deeper understanding of the complexities involved in global politics.
• Engage in role-playing games or simulations that involve diplomacy and power struggles to gain a deeper understanding of the complexities involved in international relations. You can find online communities or local groups that simulate United Nations negotiations or historical scenarios. Participating in these simulations can provide a hands-on appreciation for the challenges faced by nations navigating the balance of power.
• You can analyze current events for historical parallels by keeping a journal where you note down significant political shifts and compare them with past events like the Suez Crisis. This practice will help you understand the cyclical nature of international relations and may improve your ability to predict future trends based on historical patterns.

Propaganda, Conspiracy Theories, Wartime Information Distortion

War, the author suggests, is a particularly fertile breeding ground for deception in politics. Citing the example of H.L. Mencken’s observation that 99% of World War I reporting was likely false, Phillips highlights how a blend of wartime misinformation, wartime uncertainty, and intentional efforts to manipulate information through propaganda creates a climate where untruth thrives. This includes outright fabrications such as the infamous “corpse factories,” where the Germans were said to be boiling down the bodies of their dead to produce soap and other products, and more persistent rumors of atrocities, such as the story of a Canadian soldier being nailed to a cross by German troops that fueled anti-German sentiment in the UK.

But propaganda isn't just a wartime phenomenon—it appears throughout history. The author examines Benjamin Franklin's elaborate fabrication of a counterfeit issue of a Boston newspaper to illustrate how propaganda often amplifies existing prejudices with devastating effects. This fake newspaper detailed a shocking revelation: the nearly thousand innocent American men, women, and children who were scalped by Native Americans at the command of the British government, ostensibly to cheer up King George III. The fabricated story served its immediate purpose by turning public sentiment against Britain, though it additionally bolstered a racist trope that would linger for centuries, portraying Native Americans as savage and inhuman.

Practical Tips

• Engage in role-playing exercises where you take on the role of a propagandist and try to craft a message using common propaganda techniques. Then, switch roles and critically analyze the message from an observer's standpoint. This activity will help you understand the mechanics of propaganda and improve your ability to recognize it in real-world scenarios.
• Start a blog or social media page dedicated to "What If" scenarios that challenge societal norms. Post regular content that flips common prejudices on their head, such as "What if left-handed people were the majority?" or "What if introverts were the ideal social standard?" This can prompt followers to question and discuss the arbitrary nature of many biases.
• You can critically analyze media stories by checking multiple sources before forming an opinion. When you come across a news story that evokes strong emotions or seems to reinforce stereotypes, take the time to look up the same story from different news outlets with varying perspectives. This will help you see if the narrative is consistent or if certain details have been exaggerated or omitted to sway public sentiment.

Other Perspectives

• The complexity of war can sometimes lead to genuine misunderstandings and misreporting, which are not always the result of intentional deception.
• The claim does not distinguish between different types of media or different countries' reporting, which may have varied widely in their accuracy and susceptibility to propaganda.
• Some anti-German sentiment could have arisen from legitimate criticisms of German policies or actions during the war, rather than being solely the result of propaganda or false rumors.

Today's "Post-Fact" Political Landscape

While Phillips argues against the idea of a “post-truth” era, contending that truth has never been particularly well served, he acknowledges that the modern political landscape appears uniquely resistant to facts, expertise, and the norms of public accountability.

Politicians' Range From Lies to Occasional Dishonesty

The author distinguishes between those politicians for whom deception is a first resort and the majority who—much like the rest of us—only resort to dishonesty in particular circumstances. While recognizing that serial political liars exist and actively enjoy deception (and leaving it to the reader to decide which examples best fit), the author suggests that most political falsehoods tend to stem from commonplace human flaws – a desire to avoid embarrassment, a need to disguise incompetence, and our enduring fixation on covering up affairs.

Other Perspectives

• Politicians often operate within a system that rewards oversimplification and bold statements, which can sometimes be mistaken for deception when they are actually a response to the media and public expectations.
• It is possible that what might appear as pleasure in deception could be a defense mechanism or a learned behavior to cope with the high-pressure environment of politics, rather than a genuine enjoyment of lying.
• It could be argued that political falsehoods are sometimes a result of calculated decisions made in the interest of national security or diplomatic sensitivity, rather than personal flaws.

The Public's Skepticism Towards Political Claims and "Experts"

Phillips recognizes the public's widespread skepticism towards political claims, a distrust born of both historical awareness of how leaders mislead and a deep weariness with exaggerated promises. This cynicism, however, can lead to a rejection of those who profess expertise, and a vulnerability to conspiracies and other forms of alluring falsehood that appear to explain a complex world more simply than inconvenient facts do.

Practical Tips

• Engage in role-playing debates where you argue the opposite side of your political beliefs using only verified facts and logical reasoning. This practice can help you understand the importance of substantiating claims and might reduce the influence of skepticism by focusing on evidence-based arguments.
• Create a personal "trust index" for rating the reliability of leaders and influencers you follow. Assign scores based on their transparency, accountability, and history of accuracy. You might score them from 1 to 10, with 10 being the most trustworthy, based on these criteria. Over time, this can help you gauge who to trust and who to approach with healthy skepticism.
• You can develop a personal "hype filter" by creating a simple checklist of criteria to evaluate promises and claims you encounter. Start by listing common red flags that indicate exaggeration, such as lack of evidence, overuse of superlatives, or a push for urgency. Before you buy into a new idea or product, run it through your checklist. If it ticks off too many red flags, approach with caution and do more research.
• You can start a "Cynicism Audit" by keeping a journal where you note down cynical thoughts throughout the week and challenge them with evidence-based reasoning. This practice helps you identify patterns in your thinking and encourages a more analytical approach to claims and theories you encounter, reducing the likelihood of falling prey to conspiracies.
• Host a monthly "deep dive" discussion group with friends or community members where you collectively choose a complex topic to explore. Each person would come prepared with research from a different angle or perspective. During the meeting, discuss the various facets and resist the temptation to come to a simplified consensus. This encourages a culture of embracing complexity and understanding that some questions don't have straightforward answers.

Deceit in Commerce, Entrepreneurship, and Monetary Schemes

When money and authority drive us, deception unsurprisingly flourishes. While recognizing instances where business pioneers have embraced a "feign success until it's real" philosophy, distorting the truth in service to dreams of world-changing innovation, Phillips also notes that the line between scrappy entrepreneurship and outright fraud is a thin one. Across time, especially our financial past, scammers have exploited both human greed and the systems we’ve developed to govern our exchanges of goods and currency.

Faking It Until You Succeed in Entrepreneurship

Phillips argues that the "fake it until you make it" mantra is commonplace in discussions of entrepreneurship, and explores how this narrow boundary between self-belief and deception plays out in business history.

Deception as a Strategy for Startups and Disruptors

He cites the example of Bill Gates claiming to have finished software for the Altair computer, securing a contract and then writing the software frantically over the next few weeks, and Steve Jobs unveiling a non-functional iPhone prototype while carefully scripting his demonstration to avoid showing its flaws. These examples, however, are only seen as positive due to their eventual success. They don't provide an ethical guide for others to follow, as their justification is based on them actually succeeding after faking it. It's another example of how much hindsight plays a defining role in how we view deceit in business.

Other Perspectives

• The action taken by Gates might be interpreted as a demonstration of confidence in his ability to produce the software in a short timeframe, which could be a positive trait in a startup environment.
• The iPhone prototype demonstrated by Steve Jobs may have had limited functionality rather than being completely non-functional, as prototypes are often used to showcase the concept and design rather than the final working product.
• The success of a business should not be measured solely by its end results but also by the means it employs to achieve those results.
• Success should not retroactively justify unethical behavior; ethical standards should be consistent regardless of outcomes.

Fine Distinction Between Fake and Make

What happens when the faking doesn't lead to making? Phillips notes the example of Theranos, the biotech firm that achieved a valuation in the billions based on its assertions of revolutionizing blood testing. Its youthful founder, Elizabeth Holmes, was feted as a visionary innovator – until it became apparent that the technology didn't actually work, and the whole endeavor was an elaborately staged charade.

Practical Tips

• Create a "skill-building" challenge for yourself where you commit to learning a new, tangible skill related to your field or interests over a set period. Instead of just talking about your interest in a subject, enroll in an online course, watch tutorial videos, or practice the skill hands-on. Share your progress with friends or colleagues to hold yourself accountable and demonstrate your commitment to making over faking.
• Create a personal "due diligence" checklist for assessing the credibility of companies and investments. Before making any financial commitment, use your checklist to evaluate the company's leadership, financial health, product claims, and market reputation. This practice will help you avoid falling prey to overhyped or fraudulent ventures.
• Engage in local community or industry events as a speaker on topics related to innovation and future trends. Prepare talks that challenge the status quo and offer novel solutions, which can help you build a reputation as someone who pushes boundaries and inspires change.
• Engage in role-playing exercises with a friend where one of you pitches a business idea while the other critically evaluates it. Take turns being the skeptic, asking tough questions and challenging the pitch. This practice sharpens your critical thinking and questioning skills, making you better equipped to see through facades in real-world scenarios.

Fraud and Economic Bubbles Throughout History

If the Theranos case serves as a cautionary tale of attempting to succeed through deceit, the author suggests it's far from an isolated incident. Examining a selection of history's most audacious con artists, swindlers, and snake-oil salesmen, he demonstrates how readily we can succumb to promises of riches and how readily others exploit this tendency.

Scams, Ponzi Schemes, Exploitation of Credulity

From the surprisingly easy success of William Thompson—America's first con artist, who walked the streets of New York in the 1840s asking strangers to trust him with their watches—to elaborate cons like Jeanne de Valois-Saint-Rémy’s eighteenth-century scheme to steal a diamond necklace by hiring a sex worker to pretend to be Marie Antoinette, Phillips explores how skilled deceivers use social cues, invented identities, and societal vulnerabilities to part people from their money. This includes financial bubbles, the author notes, citing the "frenzied pursuit of valuable metals" of 19th-century Leadville that fueled Whitaker Wright’s success in convincing investors to throw money at dubious mining ventures, and even the legendary tulip craze of 1637, a frequently cited example of financial insanity that may itself have been a hoax.

Practical Tips

• Develop your observational skills to spot trust-building behaviors by people-watching in public spaces and noting down gestures or actions that seem to elicit trust from others. For instance, you might notice someone lending a phone charger to a stranger and see how this act of kindness can quickly establish a sense of trust.

Other Perspectives

• Societal vulnerabilities are not the only factors exploited by scammers; individual psychological biases and cognitive errors also play a significant role in why people fall for scams.
• Some investors in financial bubbles are well-informed and take calculated risks, rather than being blindly convinced to invest in dubious ventures.
• It's possible that not all of Wright's mining ventures were dubious; some may have had legitimate prospects that were overshadowed by the eventual scandal.
• The tulip craze, also known as "Tulipmania," is well-documented in historical accounts, suggesting it was a real event rather than a hoax.

The Normalization of "Truth-Bending" in Commerce

Phillips argues that if we feel overwhelmed by the brazenness of those who lie for money, it's because we haven’t fully grasped how ingrained “truth-bending” is in business practice. He argues that deceiving for profit is hardly a modern invention. He cites the example of Ea-nasir, a copper merchant who lived in the ancient city of Ur, and whose clay-tablet archives offer us a glimpse into his shady dealings and their eventual repercussions. Ea-nasir's preserved correspondence contains several complaints from unhappy customers who never received the superior copper they paid for, accusing him of being dishonest, showing contempt, and withholding their money. These are believed to be the world’s oldest written customer-service complaints, demonstrating to the author that business dishonesty, and our efforts to combat it, are as old as civilization itself.

Context

• The debate over business ethics often centers on the tension between profit motives and moral responsibilities, reflecting broader societal values.
• Deceptive practices in commerce have historically led to economic consequences, such as loss of trust in markets, which can result in reduced trade and economic instability.
• The tablets detailing Ea-nasir's transactions were discovered in the ruins of Ur, providing historians with insights into the economic practices and social dynamics of the time.
• These tablets offer a glimpse into the daily life and business ethics of the time, showing that issues of trust and honesty in trade have been longstanding human concerns.
• The complaints suggest that there was an established system for addressing grievances in trade, indicating a level of sophistication in legal and economic systems in ancient Mesopotamia.
• In ancient times, a merchant's reputation was crucial for business success, as word-of-mouth and personal relationships were primary means of ensuring trust in transactions.