PDF Summary:The Russo-Ukrainian War, by Serhii Plokhy

What started as Ukraine's pursuit of sovereignty in the aftermath of the Soviet Union's collapse evolved into a complex geopolitical conflict between Russia and Western powers. In The Russo-Ukrainian War, Serhii Plokhy examines how divergent political paths set Ukraine and Russia on a collision course, with Putin's expansionist ambitions clashing against Ukraine's desire for autonomy.

Plokhy covers key flashpoints leading up to Russia's full-scale invasion in 2022, from the pivotal Crimean annexation to the Donbas conflict and the roles of global powers. He explores Ukraine's resistance, Zelensky's leadership, Western support, and the rippling effects that reshaped the world order, ushering in a new era of power dynamics.

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Plokhy demonstrates that, after giving up its nuclear weapons, Kyiv took further steps to safeguard the integrity of its national borders. Ukraine's sole practical option was to pursue membership in NATO, an opportunity that came to light during the nuclear disarmament talks in the period of President Clinton, yet this alternative was subsequently set aside to avoid heightening tensions with Russia.

The decision at the 2008 NATO Bucharest Summit to postpone offering membership to Ukraine and Georgia, as a means to appease Russia, contributed to Russia's military intervention in Georgia and its subsequent hostile actions towards Ukraine in 2014.

The author condemns NATO leaders for giving precedence to relations with Russia at the 2008 Bucharest summit, leading to the postponement of Ukraine and Georgia's membership bids, thereby leaving them vulnerable to possible aggression from Russia. The author posits that this choice had a direct connection with Russia's military engagements, initially in Georgia following the summit, and subsequently in Ukraine, six years later, in 2014.

Practical Tips

• Create a discussion group with friends or online to explore hypothetical scenarios where countries are in a position similar to Ukraine and Georgia. Use these discussions to brainstorm potential outcomes and strategies that countries could employ to safeguard against aggression when facing delayed support or alliance memberships. This exercise can help you appreciate the strategic considerations that nations must weigh in international relations.
• Engage in online courses or webinars that focus on the history and politics of Eastern Europe. Look for free resources offered by universities or educational platforms that delve into the post-Soviet space, its geopolitical significance, and the intricacies of its international relationships. This self-education will give you a deeper context for the current events and the strategic decisions made by these countries.

Under Vladimir Putin's leadership, the resurgence of Russian imperialistic ambitions has increasingly driven the country's approach to international relations.

Serhii Plokhy describes Putin as a proponent of expanding Russia's dominion and nurturing the development of a more expansive Russian nation. The author suggests that Putin's admiration for Ivan Ilyin, a Russian émigré philosopher, is indicative of his stance against the Bolsheviks' fragmentation of Russia. The author depicts Putin as a staunch proponent of a unique civilization that is deeply rooted in Slavic heritage and intricately connected to the traditions of Eastern Orthodox Christianity, in line with the principles of Eurasianism.

The goal of forming a robust coalition across Eurasia to act as a counterweight to the European Union and to cement Moscow's control over the nations that were once part of the Soviet Union by employing economic and military strategies was a key factor in the creation of this organization.

The author describes endeavors like the Eurasian Union as tactics aimed at securing Russian control over areas that once belonged to the Soviet Union. Serhii Plokhy argues that although the Eurasian Union was ostensibly established to foster economic unity by eliminating trade barriers, Moscow's actions, such as the aggressive annexation of Crimea and the hostilities in Eastern Ukraine, demonstrated a willingness to resort to military interventions.

Practical Tips

• Develop a personal "defense strategy" for your mental well-being, akin to a military defense strategy. Identify potential stressors or negative influences in your life and create a plan to mitigate them. This could involve setting up a routine that includes exercise, meditation, and hobbies that help you decompress and stay resilient against life's challenges.
• Create a personal blog or vlog where you analyze the influence of major powers on smaller states, using the Eurasian Union as a case study. Focus on a specific aspect, such as energy politics, military alliances, or trade agreements, and post regular content that explores how these factors contribute to regional control. This will help you refine your analytical skills and could attract an audience interested in the subject.
• Engage with online platforms that facilitate cross-border commerce, such as international marketplaces or currency exchange services. By participating in these transactions, you'll get a hands-on understanding of how economic unity can simplify and encourage trade between individuals and businesses across borders.
• Engage in online simulations or strategy games that involve geopolitical decision-making. This will give you a hands-on understanding of the complexities and consequences of military interventions without any real-world risks. Look for games that allow you to role-play as a leader of a nation and make critical decisions affecting peace and conflict.

In 2022, Russian troops entered Ukraine, an event that, along with ongoing conflicts, Ukraine's resistance, and the response from Western countries.

The section describes how Russia's annexation of Crimea in 2014 initiated a series of developments that culminated in widespread warfare by 2022. The author depicts how Russia's hostile approach to Ukraine has changed the historical paths of both countries and transformed the geopolitical contours of Europe and the world. In Plokhy's perspective, the strife originates from Putin's ambition to enlarge his dominion and his fruitless attempts to integrate Ukraine into a broader political framework, along with his unwavering determination to preserve a strong sway over Ukraine. The narrative portrays the struggle of a nascent state to establish its autonomy.

The onset of hostilities between Russia and Ukraine began with the 2014 annexation of Crimea, demonstrating Russia's readiness to use its armed forces to advance its strategic interests and underscoring the failure of the Budapest Memorandum to protect Ukraine's independence.

Plokhy challenges the widespread belief that the hostilities between Russia and Ukraine began in February 2022, arguing instead that the true onset was marked by the Russian military's seizure of the Crimean parliamentary building on February 27, 2014. The writer interprets Russia's annexation of Crimea as a major breach of international norms established after the Cold War, signifying the first instance since World War II where a European country has annexed the land of another.

Putin's foreign policy, motivated by the vision of a larger Russia, encompassed the annexation of Crimea, which he justified as an essential action to safeguard Russian-speaking communities against what he termed a nationalist regime in the Ukrainian capital.

Plokhy depicts Putin's seizure of Crimea as an element of the "Greater Russia" campaign, which is firmly entrenched in the "Russian World" concept, encompassing its language and culture, and is closely linked to the idea of a broad identity shared by Slavic individuals. The author perceives Putin's speech on territorial annexation as a cunning strategy intended to unify different expressions of Russian patriotism. The author is of the opinion that Putin's rationale for annexing Crimea, which he asserted was to protect ethnic Russians from an imagined threat posed by alleged Ukrainian "Nazis," serves only as a diversion.

Other Perspectives

• It could be posited that Putin's foreign policy is motivated by domestic politics, aiming to rally national support and distract from internal issues.
• The annexation has been criticized for setting a dangerous precedent for other regions with significant ethnic or linguistic minorities, potentially destabilizing international borders elsewhere.
• The idea of a "Russian World" could be a post-hoc justification for territorial expansion rather than an actual motivating factor.
• The notion of a broad Slavic identity linked to the "Russian World" may overlook the significant cultural and linguistic differences that exist among Slavic-speaking peoples.
• The perception of unity in Russian patriotism could be overstated, as there may be significant opposition within Russia to the annexation of Crimea and the concept of "Greater Russia."
• The annexation of Crimea could be interpreted as a violation of international law, specifically the United Nations Charter, which prohibits the acquisition of territory by force, regardless of the stated motives.

The strategy to incorporate Crimea and expand influence into Ukraine's eastern and southern industrial hubs was motivated by the overarching ambition to forge a "New Russia."

Plokhy argues that Putin saw the annexation of Crimea as merely the initial step in a broader scheme to create a "New Russia," a project focused on territorial growth, which, following plans developed by Putin's advisors and associates in 2008, would encompass the incorporation of areas in Ukraine where the population predominantly speaks Russian or where there is a substantial Russian ethnic community. Serhii Plokhy contends that the seizure of Crimea aimed to establish a model for future territorial claims, with Putin drawing on the historical and cultural concept of Novorossiya to provide a sense of legitimacy based on cultural, historical, and ethnic grounds to the endeavor.

The establishment of two surrogate entities within the Donbas area of Ukraine precipitated the Minsk agreements, which were intended to cease hostilities but instead prolonged the unrest into 2022, signifying a notable event.

The author contends that Ukraine's robust resistance led to the scaling back of President Putin's expansive "New Russia" project, initially aimed at incorporating a large swath of southeastern Ukraine, to just including specific regions in the Donbas that were under the sway of Russian-influenced local leadership. The author describes a series of Russian military operations and Ukrainian counteroffensives that divided the "New Russia" into a pro-Russian part, two self-proclaimed breakaway republics centered on industrial cities of Donetsk and Luhansk, and those that would remain under Ukrainian jurisdiction. The author sees the Minsk agreements concluded in 2014 and 2015 as a diplomatic solution that resolved the war on paper but failed to address the key issue of Ukrainian sovereignty.

Practical Tips

• Improve your negotiation tactics by role-playing scenarios where you represent different interests, similar to the entities in Donbas. This can help you anticipate challenges and understand the perspectives of each party involved. For instance, with a friend or colleague, simulate a negotiation where each of you has opposing goals, and work towards a mutually beneficial resolution, keeping in mind the importance of creating surrogate positions to reach a compromise.
• You can analyze the effectiveness of conflict resolution in your own life by keeping a journal to track disputes and their outcomes. Start by noting down any personal conflicts you encounter, how you attempted to resolve them, and the short-term and long-term results of those efforts. This will help you identify patterns in which strategies lead to genuine resolution versus those that merely postpone the issue.
• Volunteer with a non-profit organization that focuses on conflict resolution or international relations. Through this hands-on experience, you'll gain insight into the practical aspects of negotiating and resolving conflicts. This could involve participating in community discussions, helping to organize educational events, or contributing to the organization's research and publications. This real-world application will provide a deeper understanding of the principles and challenges involved in managing geopolitical tensions.
• Improve your media literacy by analyzing news coverage of a specific geopolitical event from multiple international perspectives. Select an event related to territorial disputes or military engagements and find news articles from various countries and political leanings. Compare how the event is portrayed, what details are emphasized or omitted, and the language used to describe it. This will help you understand the biases present in media and develop a more nuanced view of international affairs.
• Enhance your global awareness by following journalists and analysts from the Donetsk and Luhansk regions on social media. Look for individuals who provide on-the-ground perspectives and analysis, which can offer a more nuanced understanding of the situation than mainstream media. Engaging with their content can provide real-time insights and deepen your grasp of the day-to-day realities in the breakaway republics.

In 2022, Russia's extensive military invasion into Ukraine signaled a major shift in global politics, prompting a strong rebuke from Western nations and spurring a global coalition to provide military aid and bolster Ukraine's defensive posture.

Plokhy observes that the Minsk agreements offered a brief pause, during which both nations prepared for the substantial hostilities that Russia commenced in 2022. The author contends that Putin aimed not only to diminish Ukraine's independence but also to integrate it into its sphere of influence by setting up a government in Kyiv that would forsake its orientation towards the West. Serhii Plokhy noted the revival of conventional imperialistic tendencies from Russia, which were marked by a clear antagonism, in parallel with Ukraine's evolution as a nation dedicated to protecting its unique cultural identity, democratic values, and way of life.

Putin justified his "special military operation" by asserting it was an action to cleanse Ukraine of Nazism and attributed the blame for the conflict to the West, revealing his skewed perception of history and misconceptions about the situation within Ukrainian borders.

Serhii Plokhy describes Putin's justification for trying to dominate Ukraine, which he labeled "denazification," as a misrepresentation by Russian officials of Ukraine's political scene, despite the country being led by a Jewish president elected democratically, and he views the blame placed on Western meddling for the conflict's beginnings as an exaggerated belief in the capability and readiness of its intelligence agents to take action. The author argues that the 2022 conflict is driven solely by imperialistic goals, seeking to restore a historical era that predates the Soviet Union and harks back to the days of the Russian Empire.

Other Perspectives

• The term "Nazism" specifically refers to the ideology of the German Nazi party under Adolf Hitler, which is not applicable to the Ukrainian government or its policies.
• Many Western nations have sought diplomatic solutions to the conflict, indicating that their role has been more about conflict resolution rather than causing the conflict.
• The concept of "skewed perception" presupposes an objective historical truth, which is itself a matter of debate among historians, suggesting that multiple interpretations of history can coexist.
• The portrayal of the conflict in Western media, which can shape international perception and policy, might be considered a subtle form of influence or interference.
• The intervention could be seen as a response to protect Russian-speaking populations in Ukraine, which Russia claims are subject to discrimination and violence.
• The desire to restore a historical era might be a narrative used for political purposes, rather than the actual driving force behind the conflict.
• The motivations for the conflict could also be rooted in economic interests, such as control over resources and trade routes, rather than purely imperialistic ambitions.

The resolve of Ukraine's leadership and populace was significantly bolstered in the face of Russian aggression, a determination further solidified by President Zelensky's steadfast commitment to his country's defense, which he emphasized in video communications that rallied the citizens.

Plokhy credits the strong defensive efforts and the united determination of Ukraine, as shown by multiple wartime surveys, to President Zelensky's skillful use of social media to bring the nation together. The author outlines a sequence of tactical blunders by Russian troops, including the delayed takeover of Hostomel airport and their inability to establish uncontested control over the airspace of Ukraine. The author emphasizes the underestimation by Russian leadership and Putin of the determination among Ukrainians, including those who speak Russian, to rally behind Zelensky and the sovereignty of Ukraine against what they perceived to be an incursion by Russia.

The inability of Russia to seize Kyiv, along with major urban centers like Kharkiv in the east and Mykolaiv in the south, highlights the deficiencies in its military strategies and the constraints of its hardware.

The author analyzes different factors that contributed to the deficiencies in Russia's military capabilities and the successes of Ukraine's defensive strategies, particularly their willingness to integrate Western military training standards and a flexible attitude towards command structures and tactical responses in the face of a strong opponent.

Other Perspectives

• The performance of the Russian military might be hampered by logistical issues and supply chain problems, which are not necessarily indicative of poor military hardware or strategies.
• The success of Ukraine could also be attributed to the tactical intelligence and adaptability of Ukrainian forces, which may not be solely or directly a result of Western military training.
• Rigid command structures have their own advantages, such as ensuring discipline and maintaining a clear chain of command, which can be crucial in large-scale military operations.
• The idea of hardware constraints might not account for the adaptability and improvisation of forces on the ground, which can mitigate such limitations.

Ukraine's resistance to Russian hostilities holds considerable significance and yields palpable outcomes both domestically and internationally.

The author emphasizes the importance of Ukraine's resistance and its symbolic importance to Ukrainians as well as their global partners. For Plokhy, the epitome of defiance is exemplified through the courageous response of Snake Island's small contingent when confronted by the aggressive advance of a Russian warship. The event was celebrated in Ukrainian folklore and honored through the release of commemorative postage stamps within Ukraine.

The Ukrainian postal service released a stamp featuring the bold declaration "Russian warship, go away in disgrace!" The event became a symbol of Ukraine's defiance, showing that its smaller military units could sometimes challenge and defeat more sizable Russian forces.

The author portrays the Ukrainian postage stamp, featuring a Ukrainian soldier gesturing defiantly at the Russian warship Moskva, as a symbol of the country's persistent resistance and fighting spirit. For Plokhy, the postage stamp stands as a symbol of a smaller nation's unwavering defiance in the face of an overwhelmingly stronger adversary.

Practical Tips

• Create a personal symbol of resilience by designing a piece of artwork or emblem that represents your commitment to a cause or personal belief. This could be a drawing, a digital design, or even a small craft that you display in your home or office as a reminder of your values and the strength to stand by them.
• Write and share personal stories or poems that draw inspiration from the symbolism of Ukraine's defiance. Use blogging platforms or social media to publish your work, ensuring that the themes align with the spirit of resilience and defiance, which can resonate with and inspire others.
• Write a series of "defiance diaries" where you document instances where you stood up against a personal 'adversary', be it a challenging situation, a personal fear, or a societal pressure. Reflect on these experiences to recognize patterns in your resilience and identify areas for growth.

The Western countries, guided by President Biden, demonstrated a strong and unified stance by implementing comprehensive economic restrictions and bolstering Ukraine's resistance to Russian aggression through military assistance.

Plokhy credits the sustained independence of Ukraine and the notable shifts in worldwide political relations to the united and strong response from Western countries.

Germany altered its diplomatic approach, pivoting towards a strategy that reduces reliance on Russia's affordable natural gas and crafting a fresh blueprint for its defense and military objectives.

Under Chancellor Scholz's guidance, Germany underwent a pivotal shift in its approach to international relations, markedly affecting the unified stance of Western countries. Serhii Plokhy maintains that Germany's dependence on energy from Russia, especially via the Nord Stream-2 pipeline, created a substantial obstacle to forming a unified approach among European countries, highlighting the challenges faced by the European Union in synchronizing the policies of its member states towards Russia.

Practical Tips

• Educate yourself on energy efficiency and implement measures to reduce your household's energy consumption. Simple actions like sealing drafts, upgrading to LED lighting, and using smart thermostats can make a significant difference. You could track your monthly energy usage to see the impact of these changes over time.
• Develop a personal contingency plan for emergencies by identifying potential risks in your life, such as job loss or natural disasters, and outlining a step-by-step response for each. This could involve setting aside an emergency fund, keeping a stock of essential supplies, or having a list of contacts for support.
• You can enhance your adaptability to change by practicing decision-making in unpredictable scenarios. Start by playing strategy-based board games or video games that require you to respond to new challenges and adapt your tactics frequently. This will help you develop a mindset that is comfortable with change, similar to navigating shifts in international relations.
• You can analyze the impact of international policy shifts by tracking changes in your country's foreign policy over time. Start by selecting a specific policy area, such as trade or defense, and review historical data and news archives to identify any shifts. Then, assess how these changes have influenced your country's relationships with allies and adversaries. This will give you a practical understanding of the real-world effects of policy decisions.

The trip to Kyiv by Macron and Scholz signified a notable shift in the position of the "Old Europe" countries, showing solidarity with Zelensky and signifying a move away from their earlier strategy of appeasing Russia.

The narrative describes how key figures from Western countries, especially those from France and Germany, were focused on quickly resolving the hostilities, an approach that, although it did not confront Russia head-on, might have risked intensifying the conflict. Scholz and Macron concluded their discussions with a firm endorsement of Ukraine's success.

Other Perspectives

• The trip might not signify a move away from previous strategies but rather an evolution of the approach as the situation on the ground changes and as international dynamics evolve.
• The visit may have been more symbolic than substantive, with the actual level of support and solidarity being contingent on actions taken after the visit.
• The actions of Macron and Scholz could be seen as symbolic rather than substantive, with the real test of their departure from appeasement lying in their willingness to implement stronger policies against Russia.
• The focus on speed over thoroughness could lead to a fragile peace that might not last, potentially leading to a resurgence of hostilities in the future.
• Avoiding direct confrontation with Russia may have actually prevented the conflict from escalating by not provoking a stronger military response.
• The strong support for Ukraine's achievements does not necessarily imply a long-term commitment. The durability and consistency of this support over time are essential to ensure it is not just a temporary stance.

The global consequences of the conflict between Russia and Ukraine have altered the dynamics of global power and also affected Russia's relations with China and other countries.

Plokhy considers the strife in Ukraine to be a major force in transforming the global energy market and shifting geopolitical relations since the Cold War's conclusion.

The confrontation in Ukraine has become a critical factor in igniting a global energy crisis and altering the patterns of international energy trade, forcing Russia to sell its oil and gas to China and India at discounted rates, which in turn places China at the forefront of those affected by the war's outcomes.

The writer describes the dispute as the main catalyst for global energy scarcities and a significant element in altering the patterns of international energy distribution. Serhii Plokhy argues that as a result of sanctions and worldwide exclusion, Russia is compelled to sell its hydrocarbon resources to Asian markets, particularly China, at discounted rates, thereby providing China with a beneficial position in this arrangement.

Turkey's role in addressing the grain crisis has been pivotal, enhancing its regional influence through capitalizing on Ukraine's resistance and Russia's international isolation to further Turkish interests in both countries.

The author depicts Turkey as evolving into a major player on the geopolitical stage, expected to accrue substantial sway in the region through its function as a mediator in fostering conversations between Russia and Ukraine. The author analyzes Turkey's strategic navigation as a NATO member, which involves providing weapons to Ukraine while maintaining advantageous relations with Russia, using the latter's international isolation and economic difficulties to advance Turkey's own goals.

Other Perspectives

• Capitalizing on the situation in Ukraine and Russia's isolation could be seen as opportunistic, and such a strategy might not be sustainable or favorably viewed by the international community in the long run.
• Turkey's domestic challenges, including economic issues and political dissent, could undermine its capacity to sustain a role as a major geopolitical actor over the long term.
• The influence gained through mediating the grain crisis may be temporary, as influence in international relations is often fluid and subject to change with shifting alliances and global economic conditions.
• Mediation efforts by Turkey could be seen as opportunistic rather than altruistic, aiming to enhance its own strategic position rather than primarily seeking peace between the conflicting parties.
• The sale or transfer of weapons to Ukraine by Turkey might not be solely driven by altruistic motives but also by economic interests, such as profit from arms sales or geopolitical leverage.
• The term "advantageous" is subjective; what may seem beneficial in the short term could have long-term consequences, such as dependency on Russian energy or entanglement in regional conflicts.
• The suggestion that Turkey is using Russia's economic difficulties could overlook the broader economic interdependencies that exist between the two nations, including energy supplies and tourism, which necessitate a cooperative relationship.
• Turkey's purchase of the Russian S-400 missile defense system has raised concerns among NATO allies about security and interoperability of military equipment within the alliance.

In response to the isolation imposed by Western sanctions, Moscow shifted its diplomatic efforts, looking for allies in the East, a move highlighted by the Russian leader's trip to Tehran where he secured backing from Iran and Turkey, nations that are likewise under Western sanctions.

The author illustrates how Russia sought alliances in the East as a reaction to Western sanctions and international isolation, highlighted by Putin's first trip abroad to Tehran after the conflict began, where he sought unity with nations that were also dealing with the repercussions of Western sanctions due to Russia's aggressive actions on military, economic, and diplomatic fronts.

Russia's tactical and operational blunders have put a strain on its alliance with China, providing an opportunity for China to enhance its global standing by presenting itself as an advocate for moderation and reason.

According to Plokhy, Putin's commencement of hostilities, which rapidly expanded into a comprehensive conflict, surprised Beijing, who had expected a short-term operation designed to destabilize Ukraine, create chaos across Europe, and obstruct Western policies targeting China. A strong alliance of countries emerged in response to Russian aggression.

Other Perspectives

• The alliance between Russia and China could be based on long-term strategic calculations rather than short-term operational successes or failures.
• Advocating for moderation and reason does not necessarily enhance global standing if other nations perceive the advocacy as opportunistic or insincere.
• It is possible that Beijing was not entirely surprised by Putin's actions, as China and Russia have a history of strategic communication and might have discussed their respective geopolitical strategies.
• The assumption that Beijing was caught off guard by the scale of the conflict could underestimate China's intelligence capabilities and geopolitical forecasting.
• The conflict may not have been intended to create chaos across Europe, but rather to achieve specific geopolitical objectives related to Ukraine's alignment with the West.
• Some countries might be part of the alliance more out of political pressure or economic incentives rather than a genuine alignment of interests or values, which could affect the stability and longevity of the alliance.

Global influence is shifting, signaling the end of a period characterized by the unmatched dominance of the United States.

Serhii Plokhy contends that following the dissolution of the Soviet Union, the world shifted from an era where American sway was predominant, which gave rise to increased conflicts between major powers and struggles for control within various regions. The hostilities in Ukraine marked the beginning of an indeterminate new era, not just a revival of old hostilities.

The geopolitical landscape has become more divided, as the Euro-Atlantic community consolidates its relationships under the leadership of the United States, while a revitalized Russia, in conjunction with China, rises as a counterweight, despite facing its own political and economic challenges.

The author suggests that the emerging global framework could mirror the binary characteristics of the Cold War era, potentially reigniting previous divisions based on politics and beliefs. The United States, at the helm of a coalition of democratic nations, was poised to confront an ever more authoritarian Russia, which had garnered support from its recent allies in China.

Other Perspectives

• The rise of multilateral institutions and regional cooperatives suggests an increase in multipolarity, where power is distributed among various actors, rather than a simple binary division.
• Some European countries have shown a desire for strategic autonomy, seeking to develop their own defense and foreign policy capacities independent of the United States.
• The notion of a binary geopolitical landscape may be oversimplified, as many countries maintain complex relationships with both the Euro-Atlantic community and Russia, and are not strictly aligned with either side.
• China's foreign policy is characterized by a principle of non-alignment and seeks to engage with multiple nations across different geopolitical spectrums, not exclusively with Russia.
• The interconnectedness of global economies and the internet age has created interdependencies that make a strict binary division less likely.
• The leadership of the United States may be contested by other democracies that seek a more egalitarian or multipolar approach to global governance rather than a U.S.-centric model.
• Russia's political system has elements of democracy, such as elections and a multiparty system, even if the fairness and transparency of these processes are often questioned by international observers.
• The concept of support might be too simplistic to describe the multifaceted and often transactional nature of international relations, where countries may collaborate in some areas while being in contention in others.