PDF Summary:The British Are Coming, by Rick Atkinson

The British Are Coming by Rick Atkinson offers a detailed account of the American Revolution's onset and progression. It examines the pivotal events that sparked colonial rebellion, from the battles of Lexington and Concord to the siege on Boston and the fight for New York City.

The book delves into the challenges faced by both sides in this conflict—military leadership, discipline and organization, resource scarcity, disease, and civilian upheaval. It sheds light on key figures like George Washington, exploring their evolving roles as the disparate militias coalesced into a unified Continental Army driven by the republican ideals of independence.

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Other Perspectives

• While the text emphasizes the indecisiveness of British leaders like General Gage and the passive approach of General Howe, it could be argued that their cautious strategies were a rational response to the unfamiliar and challenging conditions of fighting a war across the Atlantic, far from logistical support and in hostile territory.
• The assertion that the American Army under Washington introduced innovative military ideas could be countered by noting that many of Washington's tactics and strategies were influenced by traditional European military practices, and the unification of militias was a necessity rather than an innovation.
• The text suggests that British soldiers taking provisions from locals was a sign of inefficiency, but from another perspective, this could be seen as a practical adaptation to the circumstances of a long supply line and the need for self-sufficiency in a foreign land.
• The criticism of Washington's officers for being appointed based on political connections rather than combat expertise might be mitigated by the reality that political considerations were essential for maintaining support and unity among the thirteen colonies, which was as crucial as military competence.
• The text implies that the Continental Congress's trade embargo was a failure, but it could be argued that such economic measures were a significant step in asserting American sovereignty and independence, despite their mixed results.
• The depiction of the British as a militarily dominant global force overlooks the fact that they were stretched thin by global commitments and that maintaining control over the American colonies was just one of many strategic concerns for the British Empire.
• The text's focus on the American struggle to acquire gunpowder and weapons might overshadow the ingenuity and resourcefulness they demonstrated in overcoming these shortages, which could be seen as a testament to their resilience and adaptability.
• The portrayal of disease as a significant concern for both sides might be balanced by acknowledging that both the British and American forces developed strategies to mitigate the impact of disease, such as variolation against smallpox, which was an early form of inoculation.
• The text criticizes the American lack of medical staff and supplies, but considering the nascent state of the American nation and its limited resources, the efforts to provide medical care could be seen as commendable under the circumstances.

The impact of the conflict on various civilian populations.

The dilemma confronted by individuals who remained steadfast in their allegiance to the British monarchy.

Maintaining allegiance to the king proved to be a significant challenge during the period of the American insurrection, which was marked by social upheaval, confiscation of property, and violent actions directed at civilians.

As the American insurrection intensified into a revolution and then into a full-blown civil war, individuals who aimed to repair ties with the British monarchy, stay neutral, or simply wanted to steer clear of social upheaval, soon found themselves at odds with their more zealous compatriots. The author meticulously describes the tribulations faced in regions where loyalists were outnumbered, particularly in areas like New England, where they endured persecution, withstood intimidation, bodily harm, and various penalties including the seizure of their assets, banishment, and the risk of being covered in tar and feathers or facing the death penalty. The writer depicts the harsh treatment of individuals steadfast in their allegiance to the British monarchy, which involved either the demolition of their residences or forcing them to renounce their loyalty in a public setting.

Atkinson describes how the challenges faced by individuals loyal to the British Crown were primarily due to the immediate dangers they faced for their allegiance, rather than high-minded principles. Individuals who remained loyal to the British Crown, often being settlers of a more recent arrival compared to the natives, sought after a sense of stability and were apprehensive about the disorder and turmoil that would inevitably result from an uprising. The prevailing view was that the populace was daring to confront a British administration they respected as a bastion of legality and stability. The growing vulnerability became clear when the strength of the British forces alone proved inadequate for their own protection.

The Impact of Conflict on Women

Women played a pivotal role by backing various fighting groups, managing farming and business ventures, and bearing the emotional and physical strains of a brutal conflict.

The struggle disrupted the daily lives of almost every civilian, including women and individuals, spanning from the northernmost reaches of Maine to the southernmost point of Florida, with the most severe difficulties faced by families forced to flee their homes with only a few cherished possessions; it also had a profound impact on those who stayed behind as their relatives joined the revolutionary or loyalist forces; and on widows, orphans, and the disabled who were left to cope in the aftermath of the battles. Women in America played a crucial role in supporting the war effort by collecting blankets and herbs, tailoring uniforms, and producing bandages, all while keeping homes, farms, and businesses afloat during the men's absence, as demonstrated by Lois Peters of Connecticut who adeptly handled her own affairs while her husband, a craftsman specializing in leather goods, joined the military forces led by Washington in 1775.

Atkinson's narrative gains depth from the insights gleaned through the diaries and letters of women, which illuminate the daily struggles and growing strains felt by soldiers and civilians alike as the war dragged on into its third, fourth, and fifth years without a clear end in sight.

Flames consumed entire communities, and their possessions were systematically destroyed.

Attacks targeting civilian populations led to severe consequences, as seen in the blazes that broke out in several towns, including New York City. American brutality, coupled with the hostility and negligence of the British, contributed to the extensive destruction that struck Norfolk, revealing the more sinister elements of the fight for independence.

For those caught up in the hostilities, whether they supported the Patriots or remained loyal to the Crown, the conflict swiftly upended the conventional expectations and customs of 18th-century combat. Following the clash at Lexington, British forces looted residences and businesses en route to Concord. Admiral Graves made a choice that led to Charlestown becoming the first town to be engulfed in flames during the battle known as Bunker Hill. The southern coastal town of Falmouth in Maine was attacked by the Admiralty in retaliation for the local militia's successful efforts to disrupt the British procurement of masts needed for the Royal Navy's ships. Following a year of rebel control, a significant portion of the town was destroyed by an accidental fire in September 1776, during which British forces and frenzied loyalists executed or otherwise dispatched numerous individuals believed to be responsible for the arson, while also engaging in widespread beatings, plundering, and committing arson as a means of brutal retaliation.

Rick Atkinson's account reveals the harsh realities tied to the struggle. He describes how the massacre in December 1775 of several dozen slaves by South Carolina militiamen at Sullivan's Island foreshadowed greater cruelties, not to mention the casual mistreatment of American POWs and even enemy corpses, in addition to the killing of defenseless captives, regardless of race, by both conflicting parties.

Practical Tips

• You can explore the resilience of historical figures by journaling about the challenges they faced and how they might relate to modern adversities. Start by researching individuals from the era in question, focusing on their personal stories of loyalty and the consequences they faced. Reflect on these narratives and journal about the parallels between their resilience and the challenges you face today, considering how you might draw inspiration from their experiences.
• Develop empathy for historical civilian experiences by volunteering with organizations that assist modern-day refugees and displaced persons. Seek out local charities or international NGOs that work with people who have been forced to flee their homes due to conflict or persecution. By offering your time or resources, you'll gain a deeper understanding of the civilian impact of war and the importance of community support.
• Enhance your understanding of 18th-century combat disruptions by creating a visual timeline of a specific event, focusing on the unconventional aspects of the conflict. Use online resources or visit a local library to gather information about a particular battle or event from the era. Then, create a timeline that highlights instances of looting, arson, and retaliation, using this visual aid to better grasp the chaotic nature of the conflict and its deviation from traditional warfare norms.

Key Figures, Leadership Dynamics, and Shifting Perspectives Throughout the Conflict

George Washington emerged as a symbol for the United States.

Initial doubts about his abilities slowly turned into admiration for his political acumen, his talent for motivating dispirited troops, and his ultimate acknowledgment as the commander of a struggle that evolved from an uprising into a comprehensive battle for self-rule.

Before achieving renown as the commander of the Continental Army, George Washington was perceived by his contemporaries as a man motivated by his own aspirations, struggling with feelings of social inadequacy, someone who had advanced through personal endeavor but whose modest military experience and incomplete formal education meant he was not widely acknowledged beyond his local circle. Atkinson conveys his profound and occasionally heartfelt hesitations about accepting the position, frequently yearning for the days spent at his property where he might have persisted in his equine breeding and tree cultivation endeavors rather than taking on the responsibilities of a military leader amid the uprising. As Washington assumed command, Atkinson notes a significant shift in his public image, evolving from a self-important militia officer in 1756, who sought approval from the British, to a figure marked by wise self-discipline. His private comments, often written by the faint light of a candle within his unassuming headquarters, expressed a deep conviction in the exceptional journey the American people were to embark on and a growing awareness of the obstacles they would face in achieving their fate.

Washington initially believed the British regular troops to be invincible due to their expert training, but he considered the local forces to be spirited, though they were only suited for brief bouts of effort and not prepared to overcome the globe's foremost military power. Atkinson shows that a deeper and more complex understanding of the country's purpose and the essence of military service developed through experience and regular scrutiny using his metal observational instrument. As the conflict expanded and persisted, Washington's stature as a "political general" was bolstered by his managerial expertise, logistical prowess, and diplomatic tact, which were crucial in unifying the diverse and unruly populace under the alliance established by the Continental Congress. In 1777, his daring actions led to a succession of surprising victories in New Jersey, which raised his status to a symbol of the country's resolve and the spirit of the revolution; his courage, honesty, and strategic expertise were so apparent that even his opponents acknowledged that the Virginian farmer had truly become "a good rebel."

The individual in question is Charles Lee. From Hero to Scoundrel

A military figure distinguished by his imposing presence and wealth of combat experience, but eventually revealed to have deficiencies in strategic understanding and a lack of commitment on a personal level.

In 1775, Charles Lee, a distinguished military figure, arrived in Cambridge to join forces with Washington during the persistent encirclement of Boston. Lee's extensive military career, including engagements in Canada and Portugal, reinforced his sense of invincibility and offered him a perspective on the vulnerabilities of the British Empire to rebellious factions, as well as the growing aspiration for autonomy he witnessed emerging in America. Despite his penchant for flamboyant attire, such as Hussar black with a fox fur accent or a bone-white ensemble, his outfits were further distinguished by blue trimmings, complemented by the notable insignia of the Order of Saint Stanislaus, characterized by its red ribbon and star with enamel. His audacious confidence, keen wit, and often outspoken disapproval of his monarch won the affection of his fellow servicemen. John Adams was acutely aware of his own uniqueness, and to truly value him, one must have a fondness for his dogs and be willing to disregard numerous quirks in order to recognize the scholar and fighter he was.

As Atkinson illustrates, these hopes would ultimately remain unfulfilled. In the summer of 1776, in Charleston, South Carolina, General Lee was instrumental in strengthening the city's defenses and openly praised the brave local soldiers who successfully repelled the British naval forces' assault on Sullivan's Island. He became increasingly uncompromising, urging the confiscation of Loyalists' assets and endorsing the capital punishment for such persons, while suggesting the detention of women and children to deter assistance to the enemy. As the British forces regained their strength in Long Island, he frequently expressed disapproval of Washington's leadership and compared his predicament to a dog at a dance, confused by the enemy's "canvas wings." As 1776 neared its end, Lee's strategic error and breach of confidence were starkly evident; he lingered in Westchester County instead of reinforcing Washington's retreating troops in New Jersey as he had been explicitly instructed, using the excuse of insufficient boots and winter garments, while recklessly commenting on Washington's "fatal indecision of mind." The British cavalry succeeded in capturing him close to his command post due to his careless intoxication. As the year drew to an end, the alternating triumphs and setbacks experienced by Lee, chronicled by the author, served as a cautionary tale against hubris and highlighted the precarious nature of the nascent American troops.

The Siblings Howe: Leaders in Ambiguous Warfare

British commanders, distinguished by their previous victories, exhibited a deficiency in both tactical inventiveness and strategic vigor within the unconventional combat settings of America.

The Howe family, with Emmanuel Scrope as Viscount, had a profound impact on the course of the American Revolution through their substantial involvement in Britain's armed forces in the latter part of the 1760s and throughout the 1770s. The viscount's military lineage boasted his eldest son, George, who perished in combat against the French at Fort Carillon in 1758; his second son, Richard, who climbed the ranks of Britain's maritime military force, earning accolades for his role in naval engagements against the French and Spanish fleets and contributing significantly to the decisive victory that ended French aspirations at the 1759 Battle of Quiberon Bay; and his youngest son, William, who gained recognition for his strategic acumen during the French and Indian War and, as Atkinson details, survived a deadly encounter at Monongahela River where General Edward Braddock was killed, before taking part in the successful attack led by General James Wolfe on Québec.

The writer points out that the difficulty of their task on American territory was amplified because suppressing an insurrection is often more complex than overthrowing a seated government. The Howe brothers were entrusted with the leadership of an exceptionally sizable contingent of British forces. In 1776, their military might was evident in the command of a formidable fleet comprising more than 400 ships of diverse types. As August was drawing to a close, they began their military operations with an unopposed descent onto the island located southeast of New York City; however, their later efforts to encircle and defeat Washington's rebel forces were repeatedly unsuccessful, hindered by a lack of inventive tactics, a reluctance to suffer casualties, and a persistent undervaluation of the American determination to endure hardship and fight. William and Richard often expressed their surprise in a series of messages from their New York headquarters to Whitehall about the steadfast resistance of the Americans, correspondence that was probably subsequently shared with the monarch. The British commander observed the American adversaries fighting with exceptional cunning and commitment, united in their determination and, even though their leaders deceived them, they seemed prepared to pursue the conflict to a bitter conclusion.

Other Perspectives

• While Washington's evolution is noted, it's important to consider that his image as a symbol of the United States' resolve may have been partly due to the creation of a narrative by his contemporaries and later historians, rather than solely his own actions and abilities.
• The unification of the diverse populace under the Continental Congress was not solely due to Washington's efforts; it was a collective effort that involved many leaders and influencers of the time, each contributing to the cause in significant ways.
• Regarding Charles Lee, some historians argue that his military strategies and personal commitment may have been more complex than portrayed, and his downfall could also be attributed to political rivalries and misunderstandings rather than solely personal deficiencies.
• The capture of Charles Lee by British forces could be seen as a result of the fog of war and the unpredictable nature of military campaigns, rather than just strategic errors or personal failings.
• The criticism of the Howe family's lack of tactical inventiveness might overlook the constraints imposed by the military doctrines of the time and the challenges posed by the unfamiliar terrain and guerrilla tactics used by American forces.
• The Howe brothers' underestimation of American determination could be viewed in the context of the prevailing European military perspective, which often underestimated colonial military capabilities and the resolve of insurgent forces.

The activities of British forces in the southern areas

A force set sail from Cork with the mission to suppress the rebellion in the Carolinas.

The British strategy to suppress the southern colonies by sending an Irish brigade and a Royal Navy squadron stumbled as they encountered severe weather, rampant illness, and the steadfast resistance of the American forces, culminating in their loss at Sullivan's Island near Charleston.

As 1775 came to an end, Lord Dartmouth, responsible for overseeing the British interests in America, found himself intrigued by a strategy suggested by Governor Josiah Martin of North Carolina, which held the promise of a quick and economical victory over the rebels. Martin persuaded the London officials that by appointing a competent commander like General Henry Clinton, whose accomplishments in Boston had earned the esteem of the monarch, and by providing a reasonable contingent of naval and army forces, they could rally a substantial group of loyalists in Carolina to assist in suppressing the uprising and establishing firm control over the southern colonies. Atkinson offers a thorough analysis of the event, underscoring the British forces' frequent miscalculations, including their misplaced confidence in the number and fervor of loyalist allies and their failure to appreciate the determination of the American insurgents, along with the challenges of waging war far from their homeland.

The British forces' arrival, instead of quickly suppressing dissent and igniting a counter-revolution, resulted in a sequence of missteps and defeats that solidified the solidarity among the southern colonies and revealed the constraints of their military and naval capabilities. After waiting for a considerable time in Cork for favorable winds, Commodore Sir Peter Parker and General Cornwallis arrived in North Carolina at the start of May 1776, only to discover that their ranks had diminished – with a number of troops and three of their vessels stranded in different ports following a tempestuous voyage – and lacking the expected support from regional allies. The recent debacle at Sullivan's Island near Charleston led to the destruction of a British ship and inflicted grave harm upon the commander of the naval forces, while also causing the British to endure more than two hundred casualties, including the death of General Campbell from South Carolina, marking yet another embarrassing defeat for the British troops. Even the British foes acknowledged the cleverness, inventiveness, and relentless efforts of the American insurgents as they nursed their wounds and dwelled on their grievances. As time went on, Atkinson depicts how Clinton, Parker, and Cornwallis gradually realized the impracticality of attempting to conquer the vast American lands with a limited number of soldiers, especially during a period when the rebellion was intensifying in passion and resistance. Despite the Southern Department's position at the back, General Clinton remained optimistic about his and his troops' chances of re-engaging the rebels should a decisive opportunity present itself.

A proclamation issued by Lord Dunmore in Virginia resulted in the granting of freedom.

Efforts to strengthen backing among loyalists and diminish resistance by offering freedom to slaves unintentionally led to a consolidated colonial drive for independence, which deeply incensed white southerners.

In 1776, the British official who faced the most contempt was Lord Dunmore, who served as Virginia's royal governor, and he greatly miscalculated the extent of the consequences his actions would provoke. Governor Dunmore was scrutinized for his coastal property incursions, likened to poultry theft, and for his misguided attempts to recover munitions seized by insurgents faithful to the Crown, as well as for his initiatives to rally supporters of the monarchy. During the autumn season, Dunmore devised a strategy to bolster his troops and instill fear in a colony increasingly resistant to British rule. He offered freedom to any escaped slaves willing to join his forces, a tactic aimed at strengthening his military, rallying Southern loyalists, and weakening the adversary's power.

Atkinson's assessment was unequivocal: Dunmore's declaration served to escalate the rebellion and fostered increased solidarity among the American colonies. Atkinson characterized him as the progenitor of a substantial movement of African Americans. Until 1777, the British persisted in incorporating emancipated slaves into their forces, a tactic intended to leverage the fears of the white populace, yet it failed to achieve its intended effect. The strategy inadvertently solidified the resolve of the insurgents and nudged the Continental Congress nearer to a proclamation of independence.

General Clinton orchestrated the strategic redeployment of his forces to New York.

In July of 1776, the British troops evacuated the Southern Department.

General Clinton speculated that persisting with military operations in the southern regions could incite aggression and endanger the well-being of loyalist allies, especially after the failed effort to deploy troops on the mainland was thwarted at Sullivan's Island. On July 21, he ordered the fleet to assemble at Charleston Bar before embarking towards New York. During his time at Cape Fear, Clinton had ample time to reflect on the dispiriting and ignominious decline in the fortunes of the British in the South. He penned his thoughts, reflecting on the enigmatic and complex nature of divine paths. The southern campaign was a failure, in part due to reliance on inaccurate intelligence that overestimated the presence of loyalist support and failed to accurately assess the strength of the adversaries. London’s strategic missteps, compounded by tactical blunders, had left the king’s men with not a single foothold on the continental coast from Cape Charles in Virginia to St. Augustine, Florida.

Context

• Cork is a city in Ireland, known historically as a significant port. Sullivan's Island is located near Charleston, South Carolina, and was the site of a notable battle during the American Revolutionary War. Cape Fear is a prominent cape in North Carolina, while Cape Charles is in Virginia. St. Augustine is a city in Florida, considered the oldest continuously inhabited European-established settlement in the continental United States.
• Lord Dartmouth was a British politician who held a significant role in overseeing British interests in America during the colonial period. Governor Josiah Martin was the royal governor of North Carolina who played a part in suggesting strategies to suppress rebellions in the colonies. General Henry Clinton was a British military leader known for his involvement in various campaigns during the American Revolutionary War. Lord Dunmore, also known as John Murray, was a British colonial governor who served in Virginia and made controversial decisions during the revolution.
• • Loyalist allies were colonists who remained loyal to the British Crown during the American Revolutionary War.
• The Continental Congress was a convention of delegates from the Thirteen Colonies that became the governing body during the American Revolution.
• Emancipated slaves were slaves who had been granted freedom or liberated from bondage.
• The Southern Department was a military unit responsible for British operations in the southern colonies during the American Revolutionary War.
• The British military strategy in the southern colonies during the American Revolutionary War involved deploying forces under commanders like General Henry Clinton to suppress rebellion and rally loyalist support. However, their efforts faced challenges such as severe weather, illness, and strong American resistance, leading to defeats like the one at Sullivan's Island near Charleston. Eventually, General Clinton decided to strategically redeploy British forces to New York from the Southern Department due to the difficulties and failures encountered in the southern regions. This shift marked a significant change in British military operations in the southern colonies during the conflict.

The transformation of disparate regional militias into a cohesive Continental Army.

The pivotal role played by regional militias in the struggle for American independence.

The early confrontations at Lexington and Concord, the siege of Boston, and various clashes stretching to Quebec City were significantly influenced by the regional militia forces. The local militias, despite their occasional unreliability and loose discipline, played a crucial role in combat, safeguarding the populace, implementing revolutionary actions, and enhancing the overall combat effectiveness of the American forces.

The fight to assert American independence differed from the usual conflicts led by kings and emperors, who often had disciplined military forces and sought conquest or glory, although such goals were indeed sought by some. Atkinson portrays the conflict as extensive and chaotic, involving two groups with common ancestry, connected through history, language, and faith, yet divided by contrasting political ideologies and markedly dissimilar circumstances. The American populace quickly recognized the war as a testament to their united determination, characterized by the careful choice of combat zones and the rapid assembly of armed troops. The local militias, essential armed forces with origins in farms, villages, churches, and towns throughout the colonies, were pivotal in the conflict, obligating most men aged sixteen to sixty to engage in training exercises no fewer than four times annually. The militia played a pivotal role, providing soldiers who participated in the siege of Boston and the series of engagements from 1775 to 1776, which began with the initial confrontations in Massachusetts and extended to Sullivan's Island, while also serving as a community policing force to maintain allegiance, suppress dissent, and protect the inhabitants and their livelihoods.

The initial surge of the revolution and the ensuing difficulties encountered by the British were markedly shaped by the militia, in spite of their battles with short stints of enlistment, a varied and poorly supplied troop, insufficient training, and often, a deficit of experienced officers and commanders. Washington himself, after nearly two decades in civilian life, would often deplore the deficiencies of those he dubbed “shirtmen" - the militia troops whose martial competence seemed to ebb and flow with the moon. As the skirmishes escalated, it became clear to him and the legislative assembly that victory would depend on consolidating the disparate soldiers, ensuring they were adequately drilled, and securing the assistance of experienced military advisors.

The establishment of a unified armed force within the United States.

The Continental Congress's establishment of a unique national military force, under Washington's direction, symbolized republican ideals, participated in a global struggle, and fostered a feeling of national solidarity.

As the summer of 1775 progressed, British soldiers clashed with the quickly gathered American troops surrounding Boston, while simultaneously, the Continental Congress moved to intensify a colonial revolt into a full-scale war by formally integrating militia units from New Hampshire and Massachusetts into the contingent battling for the American cause, all commanded by the Virginian, George Washington. Atkinson contends that the goals surpassed just military targets. Washington's directive to employ every sensible action within their power to neutralize or apprehend those armed in opposition to the United Colonies amounted to an initiation of hostilities. Furthermore, the newly formed military force represented the ideals of republicanism, aimed to cultivate a feeling of national solidarity, and served as a melting pot for the amalgamation of diverse regional and cultural distinctions.

The army that initially gathered in Cambridge, later relocating to New York, consisted of a varied group of individuals including farmers, craftsmen, freed slaves, and an array of adventurers from different regions. In addition to grappling with critical shortages of ammunition, funds, clothing, supplies, and horse support, the soldiers also displayed a baffling deficiency in understanding fundamental military tactics, such as movement, the construction and defense of strongholds, and marksmanship, which resulted in them being described by an officer as essentially a disorderly gathering. To compensate for their insufficient training and the scarcity of seasoned officers, the army's commanders relied on harsh disciplinary measures, such as whippings with various implements, as well as humiliating public chastisements, pay cuts, and incarceration, occasionally in copper mines, as they strove to forge these men into disciplined troops and endeavored to define the fundamental character of American combatants.

Exploring for Essential Supplies

The military ensured its stock of essential items like arms, clothing, food, and pay by employing various strategies, one of which involved converting church bells into cannons, alongside the release of rapidly devaluing money.

The United States encountered substantial difficulties in maintaining an army on a continental scale in its fight against the preeminent military and economic power of the time, a battle that would continuously shape the outcome of their quest for independence. Washington and the Continental Congress faced a plethora of obstacles, including a severe shortage of firearms and artillery of reliable quality, compounded by a lack of gunsmiths, armorers, powder makers, or trained artillerymen to repair, construct, or operate them effectively; the scarcity of clothing and footwear was so acute that soldiers were sometimes compelled to create rudimentary boots from repurposed leather during the 1776 Boston campaign; and food shortages, particularly of salt and meat, forced reliance on foraging and what Washington condemned as "artificial scarcities," due to profiteering and the reluctance of farmers and merchants to accept the depreciated Continental currency in exchange for their goods.

Atkinson shows that it was a significantly more challenging endeavor to obtain the essential finances for both remunerating the soldiers and procuring extra equipment for the military. Beginning in the 18th century, local authorities started to establish their own monetary systems, which, while practical, lacked stability due to the absence of a precious metal backing. Congress had authorized its own Continental currency in 1775 and by 1777 had issued $25 million in paper money, although the need to number and sign each bill – an effort to thwart counterfeiters – hampered the effort. The Continental army's numbers grew with the inclusion of various state militias, and each new recruit received a monthly bonus of $6.67; with the expansion of the war into Canadian lands and beyond the seas, the costs escalated and the trust in paper money waned. At the beginning of 1777, Washington was confronted with the task of rallying new troops after a disheartening retreat across the state of New Jersey.

Other Perspectives

• While regional militias were crucial, their effectiveness was often hampered by their lack of discipline and training compared to professional armies.
• The notion of united determination may overlook the significant divisions and debates within the colonies about the merits and goals of the war.
• The obligation for men to train with the militia four times annually may not have been uniformly enforced or effective across all regions.
• The militia's role in the siege of Boston and engagements from 1775 to 1776 was significant, but their impact was sometimes exaggerated, and they often required substantial support from more organized forces.
• The militia's role as a community policing force could sometimes lead to excesses and abuses of power, particularly against those who were loyal to the British crown.
• The consolidation of disparate soldiers and reliance on experienced military advisors sometimes led to tensions between local traditions and the centralizing tendencies of the Continental Army.
• The establishment of a national military force under Washington's direction was a unifying symbol, but it also represented a compromise between different colonial interests and ideologies.
• The army's melting pot nature sometimes led to internal conflicts and difficulties in creating a cohesive fighting force.
• Harsh disciplinary measures used by army commanders to forge disciplined troops could be seen as counterproductive and at odds with the ideals of liberty and republicanism.
• The strategies employed to ensure a stock of essential items, such as converting church bells into cannons, could be seen as desperate measures that reflected the dire situation of the Continental Army.
• The difficulties in maintaining an army on a continental scale were exacerbated by the decentralized nature of the colonies and their varying capacities to contribute resources.
• The reliance on foraging and dealing with profiteering reflects the Continental Army's precarious supply situation and the broader economic challenges facing the colonies.
• The issuance of paper money and the subsequent inflation and depreciation highlight the financial mismanagement and economic naivety of the Continental Congress.
• The decline in trust in paper money and the escalation of war costs point to a broader issue of sustainability of the war effort without adequate financial controls and support.