PDF Summary:Rome and Persia, by Adrian Goldsworthy

For over seven centuries, the Roman and Parthian/Sasanian Empires vied for control of the Near East, alternating between periods of intense warfare and tense standoffs. In Rome and Persia, Adrian Goldsworthy examines this rivalry, showing how both sides valued stability and recognized the need to avoid conflicts that were too costly. While primarily a military history, the book explores how each empire sought to assert dominance through strategic expansions, diplomacy, and managing domestic concerns.

Rather than aiming to destroy each other, Goldsworthy argues that the two powers largely engaged in limited wars focused on asserting control over frontier regions. The book provides a nuanced look at the strategies, tactics, and technological developments that allowed the balanced forces of Rome and Parthia/Persia to remain military equals over centuries.

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• Apply the concept of limited territorial gains to your budgeting habits by setting modest savings targets. Rather than trying to save a large sum of money quickly, which can be daunting and unsustainable, aim to save a small amount from each paycheck. This approach can help you build a habit of saving without significantly impacting your daily life.
• Engage in scenario planning exercises to improve your adaptability. Imagine different scenarios that could affect your life, similar to how the Antonine plague affected the emperor's conquests, and brainstorm how you would respond. For instance, if you're planning to buy a house, consider how changes in the housing market or your personal finances could influence your decision and what steps you would take to adapt.
• Enhance your problem-solving skills by adopting the 'divide and conquer' approach used in military campaigns. When faced with a complex issue, break it down into smaller, more manageable parts and tackle each one with speed and efficiency. This could be applied to organizing a cluttered home, where you focus on one room at a time, quickly sorting and decluttering each space before moving on to the next.
• Implement the tactic of capturing royal cities in project management by securing quick wins early in a project's lifecycle. Identify and prioritize tasks that can be completed with minimal resistance but have significant impact. Completing these tasks can boost team morale and stakeholder confidence, setting a positive tone for the remainder of the project.
• Explore historical parallels by comparing modern social movements to ancient rebellions. Just as the Roman occupation faced disruptions, look at current events and identify the causes and effects of social unrest in your own country or community. This can deepen your understanding of how and why rebellions occur and what they can lead to.

Conflicts, Diplomacy, and Peace Among Two Empires

For centuries, the Parthian (and later Sasanian) and Roman empires lived alongside one another, occasionally at war and occasionally at peace. Goldsworthy argues that the pattern was one not of hostility but of wary coexistence, where each empire acknowledged the power of the other and sought to avoid a conflict that might prove too costly. The goals of both sides tended to be limited, with war waged more often to assert dominance and gain a small advantage rather than to conquer or destroy the other once and for all. This was reflected in the way the two sides waged war, since both empires developed armies designed to fight against one another, making their military advantages balanced and tending to make war more risky and attritional.

Changing Power Dynamics Through Warfare and Diplomacy

Although Rome and Parthia-Persia were at peace more often than at war, conflict was a regular feature of their relationship. Neither side aimed to destroy the other and instead fought to secure an advantage along their common borders or in contested territories between them. This meant that their campaigns focused on relatively minor territorial adjustments or asserting their dominance, in a manner that discouraged further attacks and encouraged allied peoples from across the area to favor them.

Limited Campaign Objectives and Focus On Frontier Cities

For all the poets' talk of boundless empire and the propaganda that proclaimed Roman or Persian world dominance, the aims of most wars were limited and realistic, focused primarily on the Mesopotamian frontier zone and the surrounding regions. Goldsworthy points out that although Roman forces amassed particularly big armies under Trajan or Verus, they rarely fought as a single great host and instead operated as several independent columns, each one with a more or less limited objective. Similarly, neither Arsacid nor Sasanian monarchs sought to conquer Italy or any western territories. Neither side saw real benefit in such an ambitious project, and both instinctively understood the risks and likely costs of such an operation. Instead, there were attacks, counter-attacks, sieges, and raids, often spread over several campaigning seasons and almost always concluded by a negotiated settlement of the disputed territory, territory that in most cases remained disputed.

Context

• Historical attempts by other empires to conquer distant lands often ended in failure or overextension. The Persians likely learned from these examples and chose to focus on more attainable and sustainable objectives.
• Conducting campaigns in the ancient world required careful planning and resource management. Armies needed to secure food, water, and shelter, which often dictated the pace and scope of military operations.
• Extended campaigns had significant economic implications, as they required sustained funding and resources, impacting both the military and civilian populations over time.

Other Perspectives

• The idea that most wars had limited objectives might overlook the ideological and religious motivations behind some conflicts, which could drive leaders to pursue more extensive and less pragmatic goals.
• The emphasis on the Mesopotamian frontier zone could overshadow the importance of naval power and control of the seas, which were crucial for the projection of military power and economic control in other parts of the empires.
• The effectiveness of operating in independent columns could be questioned in terms of maintaining a unified command structure and coherent strategy, which might have been compromised in certain situations.
• The notion that both sides instinctively understood the risks and costs might be an oversimplification, as it could ignore the role of advisors, military strategists, and other stakeholders in shaping the decision-making process of rulers.
• The idea that territories "in most cases remained disputed" might overlook the periods of relative stability and effective governance that did exist, where borders were respected and not actively contested.

The Tactical Standoff of Roman vs. Parthian/Persian Armies

Throughout the period of contact, the Romans and the Parthians-Persians were unable to secure a decisive tactical advantage in open battle. The Romans, relying on heavily armored legionaries fighting on foot, were initially shocked by the power of mounted archers from Parthia and their ability to shoot at enemies as they rode away. Goldsworthy stresses that we should not see this as some inherent superiority and instead should bear in mind Roman success elsewhere against cavalry and their own adoption of cataphracts and horse-archers into their armies. Over time, both empires developed tactical systems and armies that came to be very similar, so that the difference between a Roman and a Sasanian battle line came more from the mix of different troop types than from the essential equipment and strategy.

Practical Tips

• Participate in online forums or social media groups focused on military history. Engage in discussions and debates about the development of tactical systems and armies. This interaction can offer a deeper understanding of the subject matter through community knowledge sharing. Look for groups on platforms like Reddit, Facebook, or history-focused forums where you can contribute to and learn from discussions about historical military strategies and their development.
• Incorporate the principle of using a mix of strategies into your personal fitness routine. Instead of sticking to one type of exercise, create a regimen that includes strength training, cardio, and flexibility exercises. This mirrors the mixed troop approach by developing a well-rounded fitness level that can adapt to different physical challenges.

Skilled Leadership and Avoiding Mistakes

Given the relative balance of strength between them, the outcome of battles between Rome and the Parthians-Persians frequently depended on leadership and the ability to avoid serious mistakes. Goldsworthy emphasizes that tactical victories by one party could easily be reversed in the future when circumstances changed. Crassus, excessively confident and lacking experience, had blundered at Carrhae; conversely, Antony lost because he started from a very disadvantageous position and had no choice but to take too many risks. The author illustrates how skillful commanders like Corbulo had adopted a careful, methodical approach, fighting only on terrain suitable to their forces and ensuring that their soldiers were well trained, well equipped, and tightly disciplined so that they were highly motivated and ready for combat while also taking care to maintain supply lines.

Other Perspectives

• Intelligence and espionage can provide one side with a strategic advantage that may not be directly related to the leaders' skill or mistake avoidance.
• The momentum gained from a tactical victory can often be leveraged into further successes, solidifying gains and making reversals less likely as the winning side capitalizes on the initiative.
• The loss at Carrhae could be seen as a result of intelligence failures or underestimating the enemy, rather than just Crassus' personal shortcomings.
• The claim that Antony had no choice but to take many risks could be contested; there may have been alternative strategies available that could have mitigated the risks or improved his position.
• In some cases, a methodical approach might lead to predictability, allowing an enemy to anticipate and counter a commander's moves.
• High motivation is crucial, but it can sometimes be achieved through means other than strict discipline, such as inspiring leadership, shared ideology, or personal loyalty.
• Keeping soldiers highly motivated and ready for combat can sometimes lead to overconfidence or complacency if not managed carefully, potentially undermining the effectiveness of the force.
• Some commanders have succeeded by living off the land or by utilizing the resources of conquered territories, thereby reducing the need for long, vulnerable supply lines.

Khusro II's Gamble: From Limited to Total War and Rome's Response

The war waged by Khusro II against the Roman empire between 602 and 630 represented a fundamental break with the pattern of limited, essentially local clashes between the two empires. It began as a traditional attempt to reassert and expand Persian dominance, but as Roman weakness became apparent, Khusro II's ambition grew until he dreamed of destroying his old rivals altogether, taking a risk that ultimately led to a catastrophic loss, contributing to his violent downfall.

Reasons For Khusro II's Aggression and Roman Disunity Under Phocas

Goldsworthy traces how Khusro II's view of Rome changed after the violent usurpation of Phocas, who overthrew and murdered the Byzantine emperor Maurice. The author notes that Khusro II owed his position as ruler to Maurice's backing, for he had escaped to Roman territory in the final stages of a Persian civil war and secured Roman troops in order to regain his power from a rival. It was an unusual episode in the long history of contact between Rome and Persia and one for which he was forced to make substantial concessions in return. Whether motivated by a thirst for glory, by a desire to regain what he had lost, by genuine outrage at Maurice's fate, or by all of these things, Khusro II seized the opportunity presented by the turmoil within the Roman state to launch his attack, aiming initially to seize territory in Armenia and Mesopotamia before ultimately pushing south to conquer Syria, Jerusalem, and even Alexandria.

Practical Tips

• Identify a mentor or leader in your field and offer to assist them with a project or initiative. By aligning yourself with an established figure, you can gain valuable insights and potentially earn their endorsement, which can be pivotal for your career advancement. For example, if you're an aspiring writer, you could offer to help a local author with research for their next book.
• Use negotiation tactics to turn competitors into collaborators by finding common ground where your interests align. If you're a freelancer, consider reaching out to a competitor with a proposal for a joint project that could benefit both of your portfolios and expand your market reach.
• Create a "concession plan" before entering into any agreement or negotiation. List what you're willing to give up and what you must keep, similar to a pros and cons list but focused on potential trade-offs. This can be applied to various scenarios, from job offers to personal relationships, ensuring you're prepared and aware of your limits before making any concessions.
• Create a personal "glory goal" that aligns with your values and aspirations, and then break it down into measurable milestones. This strategy harnesses the same drive for glory that motivated Khusro II. If your goal is to become an influential thought leader in your field, your milestones could include publishing articles, speaking at industry events, and building a strong professional network.
• Monitor current events to identify potential opportunities for personal or professional advancement. By staying informed about the latest developments in your industry or area of interest, you can spot moments of change or instability that may open doors for you to propose new ideas, seek promotions, or pivot your career path. For example, if you work in technology and notice a major company is restructuring, it might be the right time to offer your innovative project idea to leadership.

Heraclius's Army Reforms and Shift To Religious Warfare Motivation

After the defeat of Phocas, the new emperor Heraclius was able to restore some unity to Rome, and although facing a daunting task with his army shattered and the territories under Sasanian control, he embarked on a series of military and political reforms in preparation for retaking the initiative. Goldsworthy notes that Heraclius, a devout Christian, increasingly presented the conflict as a war of faith, motivated by a deep sense that God had let the Romans suffer punishment for their sins but was now promising victory over the pagan enemy, thus ensuring his soldiers that they were waging a holy battle and would become martyrs if they died fighting. The author points out that this was an important change from the more traditional secular Roman approach to conflict and had a significant impact on military organization. There is a strong correlation between the military reforms implemented by Heraclius and the tactical and logistical advice given in the Strategikon written by Maurice, especially the need for mobility and careful tactics utilizing a balance of different types of troops.

Practical Tips

• Reflect on a recent conflict and write a reconciliation plan. Think about a disagreement or division you've experienced in your personal or professional life. Draft a step-by-step plan to address the underlying issues, propose solutions, and outline how you will communicate these to the other party involved. For example, if you had a falling out with a colleague, your plan might include acknowledging each other's viewpoints, finding common ground, and agreeing on a collaborative project to rebuild the relationship.
• Create a "preparation checklist" for an upcoming challenge or project. Think about the steps Heraclius might have taken to prepare for a campaign and apply a similar approach to your own situation. Break down the challenge into smaller tasks and identify the skills, knowledge, and resources you'll need. If you're preparing for a job interview, your checklist might include researching the company, practicing answers to common questions, and choosing appropriate attire.
• Use storytelling to share examples of faith-driven successes in your own life or in the lives of others. Stories are a powerful way to connect with others and can be shared through social media, blogs, or even casual conversations. Share how your belief in a greater good or divine support helped you overcome challenges or achieve goals. This can serve as inspiration for others to adopt a similar mindset and approach to their own endeavors.
• Create a recognition program that honors team members who go above and beyond in their roles. This could be a "Hero of the Month" award where you highlight an individual's contribution to the team's mission and how it aligns with the values of the organization. This not only motivates individuals but also sets a standard for what is considered exemplary work within the team.
• Create a discussion group with friends or family to talk about different motivations behind common societal actions. This can lead to a deeper understanding of how various factors influence behavior. During these discussions, compare and contrast decisions made for material benefits versus those made for spiritual fulfillment, like choosing a job for its salary or for its alignment with personal beliefs.
• Create a personal mission statement that reflects your beliefs and use it to guide your decision-making processes. This can be a simple sentence or two that you refer to when making choices about your time and resources. For instance, if your mission statement emphasizes personal growth, you might prioritize tasks that challenge you and help you learn new skills.
• Create a "logistical support" system for your goals by mapping out the resources you need to succeed. This could involve setting up a budget for professional development, scheduling regular networking opportunities, or establishing a routine that ensures you have time for skill-building. If your goal is to start a side business, list the financial, educational, and time commitments you'll need to make and how you'll adjust your current lifestyle to accommodate these needs.
• Improve your team's adaptability by organizing a 'mixed-skillset' sports event. Gather friends or colleagues and create teams for a sport like basketball or soccer, ensuring each team has a mix of experienced and novice players. This encourages players to adapt their strategies to the varying abilities of their teammates, mirroring the concept of using a variety of troop types in tactics.

Decisive Battles: Nineveh, Tiflis, and Khusro II's Overreach Collapse

In 627, Heraclius finally shifted the trajectory of the war when he negotiated an alliance with the Western Turkic leader. Leading his army deep into Persia in combination with attacks launched by Turkish troops to the north, the emperor finally broke the Sasanian military dominance. Goldsworthy highlights the importance of the conflicts at Nineveh (in December 627) and Tiflis (in 628) as showing the effectiveness of Roman and Turkish tactics, and explains how this led to Khusro II's downfall when a coup replaced him with his eldest son. The new monarch, eager for the designation King of Kings, confirmed the peace treaty with Rome and even dismissed the troops still holding the conquered Roman provinces without seeking any further concessions. Khusro II was put to death, and the conflict in Persia continued without any Roman involvement, while the relics were taken back to Jerusalem by Heraclius.

Practical Tips

• Use historical tactics to solve a modern problem by identifying a current challenge and brainstorming a multi-pronged approach to tackle it. For instance, if you're dealing with a competitive situation at work, consider partnering with colleagues from different departments to create a united front, much like combining forces in a strategic alliance.
• Start a journal where you document instances where a change in leadership, whether in a company, a community group, or a project, led to significant changes. This will help you understand the dynamics of power shifts and how new leadership can alter the course of an organization or initiative.
• Volunteer for a local community organization that focuses on peace-building or conflict resolution. This hands-on experience will give you a practical understanding of how peace treaties work on a smaller scale and the positive impact of reducing tensions within a community.
• Develop a personal code of ethics inspired by the virtues and flaws of past leaders. Use their stories as a cautionary tale to craft guidelines that you aim to follow in your personal and professional life. You might, for example, decide to prioritize transparency in your work after learning about the downfall of a leader who was secretive or deceptive.
• Develop critical thinking skills by analyzing current events in a similar context. Choose a current conflict and track its progression without the involvement of a major world power. Document your observations in a journal or blog, noting any parallels or divergences from historical precedents. This exercise can sharpen your ability to assess the impact of non-intervention in modern geopolitical situations.
• Organize a "relic exchange" with friends or family where each person brings an object that holds personal historical significance to them, and share the stories behind these items. This can deepen connections and understanding among the group, much like sharing cultural history.

Roman-Parthian Rivalry: Impact on Internal Politics, Economics, and Armed Forces

Over seven centuries, Rome's connection with the empire to its east evolved in reaction to changing circumstances. Goldsworthy stresses that while the rivalry was central to both sides, neither ever forgot that there were always other priorities to consider, most notably how to manage threats on other fronts and how to enforce central authority across the empire. While religion became an important element in shaping how Rome viewed and especially implemented policy on occasion, it was consistently secondary to the more pragmatic concerns of power and dominance; this was a rivalry more akin to the Cold War than the Crusades.

How Domestic Politics Affects Foreign Policy

Goldsworthy stresses that throughout this lengthy era, the attitudes and actions of successive Roman leaders, Sasanian monarchs, and Arsacid monarchs were heavily influenced by their domestic concerns and the immediate political situations in which they operated. Thus, empires in unstable periods were likelier to be hostile towards one another, as one ruler or group might seek benefit from the other side's weakness, whereas more established regimes tended to be careful and conservative and to understand the benefits of being peaceful with each other.

How Civil Wars Affected Roman Frontier Security

A recurring theme Goldsworthy presents is the weakening of Roman frontier security during civil conflicts. While other areas also suffered during such upheavals, the impact was often the heaviest in eastern regions due to the sheer size and military potential of the Parthian and Persian forces. This vulnerability encouraged aggressive leaders to gain advantages by provoking war or by forcing Rome's representatives to give greater concessions in times of negotiation.

Practical Tips

• Participate in a historical reenactment group to experience the physical and tactical aspects of ancient warfare. By taking on the role of a soldier in a reenactment of a Parthian or Persian battle, you can gain a firsthand perspective on the training, discipline, and combat techniques that made these forces formidable. This immersive approach can deepen your appreciation for the historical context and the factors that influenced regional power dynamics.

Succession Disputes and Usurpations in Iran During Sasanian Times

The Arsacid and Sasanian dynasties experienced many contested successions, with the throne often changing hands violently as brothers, sons, and other members of the royal house or associated clans struggled to seize power. Goldsworthy notes that although a similar principle of power resting on military support drove Roman politics, it was an ever-present danger to emperors, who had to find ways to deal with ambitious senators and especially the officers of their armies. In contrast, there was no formal mechanism for regular changes of leadership in Sasanian Persia. As a result, power struggles could last for years, sometimes decades, with factions forming and re-forming, territory changing hands, and different monarchs emerging.

Practical Tips

• Create a personal contingency plan for potential disruptions in your life, drawing parallels from the historical succession crises. Identify key areas such as career, finance, and personal relationships, and outline steps to maintain stability during unexpected changes, much like how a dynasty might prepare for a smooth transition of power.
• Develop a board game that mirrors the strategic alliances and betrayals of royal houses. By creating a game with rules that reflect the shifting power dynamics described, you can gain a deeper understanding of strategy, negotiation, and the consequences of different actions in a competitive environment.
• Conduct a self-audit to assess your skills and resources in the context of your goals. List down your strengths, weaknesses, and the assets you have at your disposal. Then, set specific, measurable objectives to improve in areas that will increase your influence or control within your chosen sphere, whether it's at work, in a community group, or in a personal project.
• If you're part of a club or small organization, propose a trial of a rotational leadership program. Outline a plan where leadership roles are rotated among willing members on a set schedule, ensuring that each member has the opportunity to lead and contribute new ideas. After the trial period, collect feedback and assess the impact on the group's effectiveness and member satisfaction to decide if it should become a permanent practice.
• Develop a personal risk assessment tool to evaluate the loyalty and intentions of those in your circle. Create a simple spreadsheet or list where you note down behaviors, comments, and actions of people around you that could indicate their ambitions or intentions. This doesn't mean you should become paranoid, but rather stay aware and prepared, much like emperors who had to be vigilant about their surroundings. Use this tool to regularly assess your relationships and make informed decisions about whom to trust and collaborate with.
• Use historical power struggles as a lens to analyze office politics by observing the dynamics at your workplace. Just as monarchs in Sasanian Persia navigated alliances and rivalries, you can identify key influencers in your office and understand their interests and motivations. This can help you build strategic relationships and navigate your career path more effectively.

Economic Considerations: Trade, Taxes, Warfare Costs

Although the survival of sources is limited and often difficult to interpret, it is clear that economic factors, and especially wealth, trade, and the ability to raise sufficient funds to pay soldiers and other employees of the state, played a central role in shaping the actions and attitudes of monarchs and emperors. Goldsworthy highlights the importance of trade routes as a potential source of income through levying tolls and enforcing taxation in addition to supplying goods. While rulers and monarchs had to compete with merchants and adventurers, especially in the luxury trade, it was clearly in all parties' interests to ensure fundamental security.

Trade Route Significance and Control Competition

Both empires had a significant interest in maintaining control of and profiting from the routes of trade that crossed their territory or the border regions under their influence. For example, the Sasanian realm benefitted greatly from taxing trade from China and India, but they were careful to avoid alienating the merchants and travelers, since these could readily switch to alternatives. This means that we must be wary of exaggerating the extent of Sasanian control over such trade and should take account of the role played by other players, most notably the kings and peoples of the Caucasus, the Arabs and those allied with them, and the many different communities directly involved in commerce. The same principle applies to Roman involvement in the luxury trade from the East, as this involved a range of participants beyond Roman merchants and officials.

Practical Tips

• Use social media to start a community group focused on shared resources and skills. This can be a digital trade route where members of your community offer their skills, items for trade, or services. It's like creating a marketplace without the physical space, where a graphic designer could offer logo design in exchange for home-cooked meals from a local chef.
• Enhance the experience of your service users by soliciting and acting on their feedback. Use simple online surveys or comment cards to gather insights, and then make visible changes based on the suggestions. This could be as straightforward as a bookstore rearranging its layout to better suit the flow of customer traffic as suggested by regular patrons.
• Start a blog or social media page dedicated to sharing stories of lesser-known historical figures and communities in your region. By highlighting the roles of different groups in shaping your local history, you're applying the concept of recognizing multiple contributors to historical developments, much like acknowledging the roles of the Caucasus, Arabs, and other communities alongside the Sasanians.

The Financial Burden Of Maintaining Armies and Fortifications

Goldsworthy stresses that maintaining a permanent military was an expensive business for both empires, swallowing up the majority of each state's income. While war could be profitable, if success and a favorable peace treaty allowed the seizing of loot and prisoners, the cost of defeat far outweighed any short-term gains. This gave both sides an incentive to avoid direct conflict and instead focus on their remaining frontiers. Even peaceful periods between the empires were not cheap, since they needed to maintain large garrisons on these borders and fund the constructions of fortified cities and other defenses, as well as to bribe allies.

Other Perspectives

• The term "majority" is vague and could be misleading; if the military expenses were less than 50% of the total income, then they did not technically consume the majority.
• The statement does not account for the possibility that the fear of defeat could lead to increased military innovation and efficiency, which could benefit the state in future conflicts.
• The focus on fortifications and border garrisons could be seen as a provocation or sign of weakness, inviting challenges from other powers that might not otherwise have occurred.
• The term "costly" is relative and could be assessed differently based on the overall wealth and economic capacity of an empire; what is costly for one may be sustainable for another.

Plague and Economic Dislocation's Impact on Imperial Resources

The Antonine plague in the second century AD likely marked the beginning of a series of significant pandemics to strike the Roman and Sasanian realms and spread to other parts of the wider world. Sources for the impact of these outbreaks are meager compared to those for times of war or civil strife, and are seldom sufficiently detailed enough to allow a balanced assessment of their long-term cost to the economy and to population levels. Goldsworthy argues that they were certainly a traumatic experience, disrupting trade and weakening the finances of each state, but also that neither empire appears to have suffered irreparable damage from any of these plagues. The military forces largely stayed intact, as did the ruling elite and the wider civilian population.

Practical Tips

• Volunteer with local history groups or initiatives to collect oral histories related to outbreak experiences. By interviewing different community members, you can help preserve diverse perspectives and stories that might otherwise go undocumented. These oral histories can then be archived in local libraries or online platforms for educational and research purposes.
• Develop a side hustle or learn a new skill that can be monetized online. This strategy provides an additional income stream that can be less susceptible to local economic disruptions. For instance, if you enjoy writing, consider freelance content creation, or if you're skilled in a particular subject, offer online tutoring services.
• Engage with local governance by attending town hall meetings or joining community boards to advocate for better emergency preparedness policies. By voicing your concerns and suggestions, you can contribute to creating a more robust infrastructure that can withstand pandemics or other disasters, benefiting the entire civilian population.

Military Organization: From Citizen Armies to Professional Soldiers

The Roman military transformed profoundly over these seven centuries; Goldsworthy notes that changes were particularly obvious after the troubled third century, when the emperors relied increasingly on equestrian officers at the expense of senators. Yet in many respects, the Sasanian military evolved similarly. There were more professional soldiers, most hailing from the privileged classes of each society who were better suited both by their wealth and leisure to train and acquire skills required to be effective. Both sides became skilled in siege warfare, employing sophisticated weapons and tactics to capture or defend strongholds that grew ever stronger.

Roman Military Transformation and Equestrian Officers' Advancement

The Roman emperors responded to the challenges of the 3rd century by creating a larger, more localized military, with smaller units capable of operating independently and combining into larger armies when necessary. This altered how soldiers were recruited and organized. Goldsworthy stresses that it was during this period that those outside the senatorial class came to dominate the most senior positions, bringing into being a class of professional officers whose careers often extended over several decades. Senators were now only given posts with civil administration, creating a growing social and cultural divide between the military and the civilian elite.

Practical Tips

• Adapt the Roman strategy of localization to your personal network by creating specialized groups for different interests or needs. For instance, if you're part of a book club, consider forming smaller discussion groups focused on specific genres or authors. This allows for more in-depth conversations and can help members feel more connected and engaged.
• Develop a personal growth plan that allows for independent learning and group learning opportunities. Dedicate time to self-study on topics of interest, but also join clubs or online communities where you can share knowledge and learn from others. For example, you might learn a new language using an app on your own and then practice speaking with a local language exchange group to enhance your skills through collaboration.
• Volunteer with a local organization and offer to help optimize their recruitment and team organization strategies. Use insights from military recruitment – such as the importance of clear roles, shared values, and the ability to work as a cohesive unit – to suggest improvements in how the organization attracts and manages volunteers, ensuring that each person's skills are utilized effectively for the group's objectives.
• Mentor someone with a different background or skill set from your own to understand the value of diverse leadership. By guiding someone from a non-traditional background for a leadership role, you'll gain insights into the strengths they bring to the table, just as non-senatorial military leaders did.
• Map out a long-term career plan with milestones that span decades to emulate the career longevity of professional officers. Start by identifying your current position and desired end goal, then break down the path into 5-year increments, setting specific career milestones such as promotions, skill acquisitions, or leadership roles you aim to achieve. This approach helps you visualize a clear trajectory and stay focused on long-term objectives.
• Explore local government or community board meetings to understand the division of roles in your area. By attending these meetings, you can observe firsthand how different responsibilities are allocated among elected officials and public servants, mirroring the historical divide between military and civilian roles. This can provide insight into modern parallels and the importance of balanced power distribution.

The Evolution of Sasanian Frontier Systems and Mounted Soldiers

The Sasanian regime, facing threats on several frontiers, came to invest heavily in frontier defenses, including very impressive fortifications in the passes through the Caucasus and along the edge of the Caspian Sea. The author examines the Gorgan Wall in detail, highlighting the engineering skill that went into its construction and the vast size of its forts, which imply a remarkably sizable and well-organized garrison for this region. In addition, the Persians also built very large, strongly fortified enclosures or campaigning bases intended to accommodate and perhaps to supply the armies which would be assembled in the vicinity whenever it was judged necessary, whether to fight a war or to patrol beyond the frontier. Both sides developed highly effective and sophisticated armies, and the differences in their tactics and ways of fighting were often subtle and reflected by their combination of soldier types and reliance on allies, who often used the conventional methods of steppe nomads.

Practical Tips

• You can safeguard your digital frontiers by investing in comprehensive cybersecurity software for your personal devices. Just as the Sasanian regime fortified their borders, protecting your online presence from cyber threats is crucial. Start by researching and installing a robust antivirus program, setting up a firewall, and using complex passwords or a password manager to secure your accounts.
• Participate in a strategy board game that involves building and defending fortifications. Games like "Carcassonne" or "Stronghold" require players to think like historical military leaders, strategizing the placement and reinforcement of walls and defenses. This can provide a playful yet educational perspective on the importance and effectiveness of fortifications in a controlled, competitive environment.
• Engage with online platforms that simulate engineering and architectural design, such as digital puzzle games or apps that allow you to construct virtual buildings. These interactive experiences can help you grasp the complexities and challenges engineers face when designing large structures. Look for apps that focus on historical construction techniques or that challenge you to build with limited resources to mirror the ingenuity required in ancient times.
• Create a scale model of a large fort using everyday materials. Use cardboard, craft sticks, or modeling clay to construct a model fort, focusing on replicating the large scale mentioned in the context of the Gorgan Wall. This hands-on project can help you grasp the complexity and grandeur of ancient fortifications and develop spatial awareness.
• Enhance your personal organization by adopting the concept of 'supply lines' used by garrisons, ensuring you have a well-stocked and organized pantry or home office. Keep an inventory list and restock essential items before they run out, much like a garrison would maintain its supplies. This could mean setting reminders to purchase more printer paper when you're down to one ream or restocking your favorite snacks weekly.
• Implement a 'fortified mindset' for tackling challenging tasks by establishing mental 'enclosures' where you focus solely on one task at a time. This could involve setting aside specific times of the day as your 'battle hours' where you concentrate on your most demanding projects, similar to how Persian armies would prepare for battle within their enclosures. During these hours, avoid multitasking and give your full attention to the task at hand.
• Create a personal readiness kit for unexpected situations, similar to how armies prepare for various scenarios. This could include a first-aid kit, a power bank for your devices, a multi-tool, and a list of emergency contacts. Having these items assembled and easily accessible can help you feel more prepared and capable of handling unforeseen events.
• Develop sophisticated problem-solving skills by learning and practicing military decision-making processes. Research methods like the Military Decision Making Process (MDMP) and apply them to your personal challenges. For example, when faced with a significant decision, gather information, evaluate it, develop a list of possible solutions, weigh the pros and cons of each, and then make a well-informed decision.
• Observe and document subtle variations in everyday interactions to enhance your social strategy. By keeping a journal of your conversations and social encounters, note the different approaches you and others take. For example, if you're trying to resolve a conflict, try changing your tone, body language, or even the timing of your communication, and record the outcomes. This will help you understand which subtle changes are most effective in different social situations.
• When volunteering or participating in community projects, advocate for a mixed-skills approach. Encourage the organizers to assign roles based on a variety of skills rather than having everyone do the same task. For instance, in a community garden project, have some people focus on planting, others on design and layout, some on community outreach, and others on fundraising. This strategy ensures that the project benefits from a range of talents and expertise, similar to how an army benefits from having different types of soldiers.
• Create a mutual benefit agreement with a peer where you both commit to supporting each other's goals. This could be as simple as a weekly check-in call where you discuss progress, offer advice, and hold each other accountable.
• You can learn from diverse fields to innovate in your own by setting up a "cross-pollination" notebook. Dedicate a section to observations from industries or cultures unrelated to your own. For instance, if you work in technology, you might observe how restaurants manage customer flow during peak hours and brainstorm how similar strategies could streamline user traffic on a website.

Parthian to Sasanian Transition and Roman/Byzantine Conflicts

The overthrow of the Arsacids and the establishment of the house of Sasan as the new rulers of Persia marked an important change, not simply in the name of the dynasty but in an apparent increase in central authority and a more assertive and expansionist foreign policy. The Romans now faced a more powerful neighbor and would fight more wars against them, even though their objectives remained limited. A sign of increasing parity was a change in the way diplomacy was conducted: the ruler and the monarch began formally to address each other as 'brother', and both sides were eager to portray any agreements reached as mutually beneficial, even as they sought to proclaim themselves as superior in the eyes of their subjects.

Ardashir I's Ascent and the Founding of His Dynasty

In 224, following hundreds of years of Arsacid rule, a rebel named Ardashir I won a battle against Artabanus IV, the Great King, and declared himself the new ruler. Goldsworthy explains how the Sasanian dynasty came to power by blending military success, political skill, and a deliberate assertion of continuity with earlier, more deeply rooted traditions, and stresses that Ardashir's victory was not instant or inevitable, but the result of decades of internal conflict within Parthia which weakened its rulers and encouraged the emergence of competing throne contenders.

The Beginnings of Ardashir and Sasanian-Arsacid Relations

Ardashir I was not part of any of the royal Arsacid houses, but claimed descent from an earlier king named Papak, who may have been associated with a Zoroastrian fire temple. Goldsworthy examines the varied accounts of Sasanian origins, noting the challenge of disentangling myth from reality as the new dynasty sought to legitimize its authority and downplay recollections of the Parthians, their forebears. The author notes that, whatever his actual origins, Ardashir was a talented military and political leader who united Persis (the Achaemenid core) and then defeated Artabanus IV, and points out that this victory came in the aftermath of decades of civil war within Parthia, which had severely weakened the Arsacids.

Practical Tips

• Explore your own genealogy to connect with your heritage, similar to how Ardashir I claimed descent from a notable figure. Use online genealogy platforms to trace your family tree and discover any historical figures or interesting ancestors you may be related to. This can give you a sense of identity and belonging, and you might find inspiring stories that resonate with your personal values or interests.
• Create a social media challenge that encourages friends to share a commonly held belief or "myth" about their culture, then research and post their findings on its historical accuracy. This activity promotes critical thinking and awareness of how myths can shape our understanding of cultural identity.
• Engage in a 'cultural reset' within your household or among a group of friends to shift the focus from past habits to new, shared goals. Start by collectively identifying behaviors or traditions that no longer serve the group's interests. Then, introduce new activities or rituals that better align with the group's current values and aspirations. For example, if your family used to have sedentary movie nights, you might transition to active game nights or weekend hikes to promote health and togetherness.
• Volunteer for a community project that requires coalition-building, akin to Ardashir's unification efforts, to practice bringing diverse groups together toward a common goal. This hands-on experience can improve your communication, diplomacy, and leadership skills, which are applicable in various aspects of life.
• Create a family tree to visualize the effects of internal conflict on lineage. Use a free online tool or app to map out your own family history, noting any known disputes or divisions. This personal connection can provide insight into how conflicts might have played out in historical contexts, such as the Arsacid dynasty, and their long-term effects on family cohesion and legacy.

Sasanian Centralized Power and Zoroastrian Religion

Ardashir I and later Sasanian leaders made considerable use of Zoroastrianism to legitimize their rule and portray themselves as chosen by the greatest god, Ahura Mazda, to lead his people and fight on behalf of the truth over the lie. Goldsworthy explains how this was expressed in the magnificent scenes carved on rock reliefs, and stresses that we must be wary of assuming that this represented a sudden and total break with earlier traditions inherited from the Parthians. In fact, the Sasanians blended many different aspects of belief and practice to create a distinctive and very appealing religion, something not entirely new or unique to them for the time but certainly more deliberately and efficiently employed to enhance the power and prestige of the monarch.

Practical Tips

• Create a personal "legitimacy project" by selecting a cause or belief you are passionate about and developing a symbol or narrative that encapsulates its values. You might design a logo for a community initiative or write a short story that conveys the mission of a local non-profit organization. This hands-on activity will help you understand the process of creating and using symbols to legitimize and promote ideas.
• Create a personal space that reflects historical artistic traditions by incorporating elements inspired by ancient reliefs, such as wall hangings or sculptures. This can serve as a daily reminder of the continuity of human expression and the importance of preserving cultural heritage.
• Create a mixed-media art project that represents the fusion of different cultural and spiritual symbols. Gather materials like magazines, printouts, textiles, and paints to represent various beliefs. As you craft your artwork, think about how each piece contributes to a greater whole, symbolizing the blending of traditions to form a unique tapestry of spirituality.
• Use storytelling to frame your experiences in a way that highlights your strengths and aligns with the aspirations of your audience. If you're seeking a promotion at work, craft a narrative around past projects that showcases not just your achievements but also how they reflect the company's goals and values, thereby enhancing your perceived value and leadership potential.
• Engage with community elders or cultural historians to gain insights into the evolution of local customs. Arrange informal interviews or discussions to learn about the historical context of your community's customs and how they have been influenced by various factors over time. This can help you appreciate the gradual nature of cultural change and the layering of new practices over old ones.

Roman Political Shifts and Opportunities for Sasanian Expansion

While the Sasanians were consolidating their hold on their lands, the Roman realm was facing a prolonged period of instability. After decades of emperors from the Severan dynasty, who based their power primarily on military support, Maximinus Thrax became a new kind of ruler. Goldsworthy explains how this ushered in a new era of civil wars and usurpations, as men from outside the senatorial order—often with humble origins and little experience of government, who were propelled by ambition—challenged whomever the senate and the capital's troops had proclaimed as emperor. The army reaped the rewards of the bribes and promises each claimant offered, as officers driven by ambition became kingmakers. This in turn encouraged them to betray their own emperor should another offer greater rewards. This cycle of instability continued for many years, and this weakness of Rome provided an opportunity for Ardashir I to expand his power, attacking the empire's border provinces and retaking some territory lost in the past.

Practical Tips

• Develop a habit of reflective journaling to assess and reinforce your personal boundaries. Each week, take time to write down where you felt your boundaries were challenged or where you successfully maintained them. This could be in conversations, work-life balance, or personal space. Use these reflections to identify patterns and create actionable steps to strengthen your boundaries, ensuring you have a solid hold on your personal space and values.
• Develop a 'stability index' for evaluating decisions in your life. Create a simple scoring system that rates potential decisions based on how they might affect your personal stability. Assign points for factors such as financial security, emotional well-being, and social support. Before making a significant decision, use the index to help gauge whether it will bring more stability or potential chaos into your life.
• Embrace a new hobby that challenges traditional roles to expand your personal boundaries. By engaging in activities that are not typically associated with your current lifestyle or job, you can experience a shift in perspective similar to how a new kind of ruler might approach governance. For example, if you work in a tech field, try your hand at creative writing or painting to explore different facets of your personality and skill set.
• Write a series of fictional short stories or blog posts inspired by the events of Maximinus Thrax's rule, but set in a contemporary or futuristic society. This creative exercise allows you to explore the themes of power, conflict, and leadership in a modern context, making historical lessons more relatable and easier to apply to today's world. Through your stories, you can dissect the dynamics of civil wars and usurpations and their impact on society, encouraging readers to reflect on current political climates.
• Explore historical fiction writing to reimagine the lives of non-senatorial challengers. By creating characters and narratives based on the concept of outsiders challenging authority, you can deepen your understanding of the dynamics of power and ambition. For example, write short stories set in ancient times where the protagonist is a commoner with aspirations to change the status quo.
• Create a personal development plan focused on acquiring new skills relevant to governance and leadership. Identify free online courses or resources that teach the basics of political science, public speaking, or negotiation. By systematically building your knowledge, you're equipping yourself with the tools that can help you understand and potentially engage in higher levels of leadership in the future.
• Consider volunteering for a political campaign to see firsthand how promises and incentives are used to gain support. Pay attention to how campaign promises are crafted and delivered, and the reactions they elicit from volunteers and voters. This experience can provide a practical understanding of the strategies used to sway groups, akin to the historical context of claimants and the army.
• Create a "decision tree" for ethical dilemmas to visualize potential outcomes of choices involving rewards versus integrity. Start with a simple scenario where you're offered a reward to do something against your values, and branch out with possible consequences. This can help you prepare for real-life situations and reinforce your commitment to your values.
• Use social listening tools to detect dissatisfaction among customers of other businesses in your niche. By setting up alerts for keywords related to competitors' products and services, you can identify gaps in their offerings or areas where customers are consistently unhappy. Then, develop solutions that directly address these pain points, positioning your product or service as a superior choice. This mirrors the strategic approach of seizing power by focusing on the weaknesses of the dominant force, much like Ardashir I did with Rome.
• Create a map-based timeline of significant historical invasions to visualize the impact of border province attacks. Using free online tools like Timemapper or Google My Maps, plot out key invasions throughout history, noting the strategic value of border regions. This activity helps you understand the broader patterns and consequences of such military decisions, and why leaders like Ardashir I might have chosen to attack at the periphery of an empire.
• Use the concept of 'territory' metaphorically to improve an area of your life. Identify a 'territory' in your life that you feel is underdeveloped, such as financial knowledge, physical fitness, or a particular work skill. Dedicate time each week to 'reclaim' this territory by learning and practicing new habits that strengthen your abilities in this area.

Shapur I's Triumphs: Turning Point in Capturing Valerian

Under Shapur I, Ardashir's son, Sasanian Persia continued to expand through war, with campaigns fought against enemies on its northern and eastern frontiers as well as against the Roman empire. Goldsworthy explains how Sasanian Persia adopted and extended the Parthians' traditions of warfare, building upon the latter's success by incorporating new elements, especially heavily-armed cavalry (cataphracts and clibanarii) and a greater emphasis on siege-craft. The author stresses that these innovations shouldn't be considered a sudden change but most likely an evolution from earlier traditions and practices.

Sasanian Siege Warfare Development and Tactical Shift

In the mid-third century, the forces of Shapur I captured the city of Hatra, which had defied earlier attacks by Roman emperors. The campaign revealed the evolution of Sasanian siege warfare and was consistent with a larger trend towards greater use of soldiers capable of fighting at close quarters both on foot and on horseback. Goldsworthy notes that this change from the more traditional Parthian emphasis on horse-archers is readily explained as a response to the challenge posed by the disciplined and strongly-armed Roman legions who, when properly handled and backed by a variety of other troop types, had proven themselves hard for even the best of the Parthian armies to defeat. While never abandoned, horse-archers took on a supporting function in the Sassanid military.

Practical Tips

• Write a short story or script set in the era of Shapur I's conquest of Hatra. This exercise encourages you to research the historical context and imagine the lives of those involved in the siege. By crafting narratives around the event, you delve into the human aspect of historical conquests, which can foster a deeper connection to the past.
• Take up a martial art that focuses on the principles of close combat, such as judo or Brazilian jiu-jitsu. These disciplines emphasize grappling and ground fighting, which can offer insights into the physical and mental demands of close-quarters encounters. Training in these arts can also improve your fitness, discipline, and understanding of self-defense.
• Adapt to changing "battlefields" in personal finance by creating a dynamic budgeting plan. Just as military tactics evolved to meet the strength of Roman legions, your budgeting should adapt to economic fluctuations. Set up a monthly review of your expenses and income, and be ready to adjust your spending in areas like entertainment, dining out, or subscriptions to ensure you're always prepared for financial uncertainties.
• Identify a role in your current team or group where you can offer support without leading. Just as horse-archers provided crucial support in battles, you can find a project or task where your skills can complement others. For example, if you're good at organizing, offer to manage the logistics for a team event or project.

Shapur's Power Consolidation and Empire Expansion

The capture of Valerian in 260 was one of Shapur I's greatest triumphs, a propaganda victory that humiliated Rome and fueled internal conflict and usurpations within the empire. Goldsworthy points out that, for all the spectacular nature of the emperor's capture, Roman resistance didn't end there. Commanders operating in the emperor's name and others claiming to be rightful emperor won some victories against Persian armies and recovered some ground and captives, although the Sasanians managed to return to their territory without suffering any serious defeat.

Practical Tips

• Reflect on a personal victory and write a short story or journal entry about it to understand the factors that led to your success. Just as Shapur I's triumph was significant in history, identifying the elements that contributed to your own successes can provide insights into your strengths and strategies that work for you. For example, if you once won a local competition, dissect what preparation, mindset, and external factors played a role.
• Use the concept of 'propaganda victories' to analyze current events critically. When you read about a political or social victory in the news, think about how it's being presented and who benefits from the narrative. This will help you develop a more nuanced understanding of the information you consume and the potential biases at play.
• Use role-playing games to simulate the consequences of leadership failure. Gather a group of friends and create a game where one person's capture or downfall leads to a series of challenges for the rest. This can be a fun and engaging way to explore the ripple effects of leadership crises on a smaller, more personal scale.
• Create a visual representation of your support network to remind yourself that, like the Romans, you're not alone in your struggles. Draw a map or a web that includes friends, family, mentors, or even inspirational figures who provide you with strength and guidance. When you're facing a tough time, look at this map to remember the people who can help you stay resilient.
• Create a "victory log" to track your personal achievements, no matter how small, and attribute them to the strategies or advice you've followed. This can help you see patterns in what works for you and reinforce successful behaviors. For example, if you notice that you're more productive when following a specific time management technique, make it a regular part of your routine.
• You can draw inspiration from historical figures to set personal goals by researching various leaders who overcame significant challenges and then identifying the qualities they possessed that you admire. For example, if you're impressed by an individual's ability to achieve victories against great odds, like the emperors mentioned, you might set a goal to develop resilience and strategic thinking. You could start by setting small challenges for yourself that require planning and perseverance, such as completing a difficult project or learning a new skill.
• Reflect on past setbacks and identify what you can reclaim or learn from them. Just as the Romans recovered ground and captives, you can look at your own life's "battles" and see what you might have lost that can be regained. For example, if you lost touch with an old friend during a busy time, reach out to rekindle that relationship.

Parthian/Sasanian Decline and the Rise of Arab Conquests

The first and second centuries were a time of great wealth, stability, and military success for the Romans as well as the Parthians, a situation that continued in Persia under Shapur I. Yet both empires endured a succession of challenges, including outbreaks of civil war, periods of economic downturn caused by natural disasters and the effects of plague, and numerous conflicts against tribes and kingdoms both at their borders and farther afield. Goldsworthy argues that even in the supposed Golden Age of Roman stability and power, neither Rome nor Parthia had been able to defeat or control their most powerful tribal adversaries unless these people had weakened themselves through internal disputes. Both empires lacked a vast standing army. Thus, resources of manpower, money, and attention tended to be stretched thin whenever they engaged in combat in more than one area at a time.

Weakening Of Established Empires

For all the glories of emperors like Augustus, Trajan, and Antoninus Pius, and the successes won by their legions, there were also setbacks, times of upheaval, and signs of the inherent weakness of a military and political system that could not respond quickly to major threats. Over time, Rome's state systems changed to make it safer for whoever happened to be emperor by reducing the authority of his subordinates, and emperors came to be more or less permanent war-leaders, taking command of campaigns in person or through members of their immediate family. The Arsacid and later the Sasanian dynasties faced similar challenges and adopted measures that were often similar, if in detail naturally reflecting their own cultures and traditions.

Costs and Risks of the Rome-Persia Conflict

Throughout the period of contact, the conflict between the two empires involved considerable cost for both sides in terms of resources of soldiers, supplies, and the financing needed to support warfare, and although in some cases, armies were able to live off the land for parts of their campaigns, as often they were forced to carry provisions or rely on their allies. Goldsworthy notes that this consistently posed a burden for states that lacked modern forms of taxation, let alone credit, to make revenue available to the government when and where it was needed. Along with the direct expenses of maintaining armies and waging war, there were substantial ongoing costs involved in maintaining fortifications, bribing allies, and protecting trade routes.

Context

• Without modern technology, both empires faced significant challenges in communication and transportation, which affected their ability to mobilize and sustain large armies over long distances.
• Campaigns were often planned around seasons to ensure better access to resources, as certain times of the year were more conducive to foraging and living off the land.
• The need for naval forces to control key waterways and protect coastlines added another layer of expense, as ships required construction, maintenance, and crews.
• Alliances were often maintained through financial incentives or gifts. This practice was essential for securing loyalty and support, especially in regions where shifting allegiances could alter the balance of power. The cost of these bribes could be substantial, impacting the treasury.

Burden of Keeping Armies and Defending the Borders

Empires have always been costly by nature, and historically there was a constant tension between the desire to seem strong and capable of engaging in combat and the necessity of keeping the costs down by making the most efficient use of available resources. By the 400s and 500s, both Rome and Persia developed relatively small standing armies compared to the size of their populations and economies. Neither side could afford to maintain a very large professional force, relying instead on a mixture of allies, mercenaries from beyond the empire's borders, and levies of a militia raised from communities and regions.

Other Perspectives

• Some empires have benefited from geographic advantages, such as natural barriers or strategic locations, which can lower the costs of defense and reduce the overall financial burden.
• In some cases, the appearance of strength could be a deterrent in itself, potentially leading to cost savings by avoiding conflict altogether.
• The size of Rome and Persia's standing armies might have been larger than the text suggests when considering the proportion of their populations that were capable of bearing arms.
• The effectiveness of using allies, mercenaries, and militia can be questioned, as these forces might not have been as loyal or well-trained as a professional standing army.