PDF Summary:River of the Gods, by Candice Millard

When Europeans set out to solve the geographical mystery of the Nile's source in the 19th century, they unwittingly drew themselves into the complexities of East Africa—its terrain and wildlife, the scope of the slave trade, the dynamic with locals who assisted their expeditions, and the ramifications of their presence in the region. In River of the Gods by Candice Millard, we take a closer look at Richard Burton and John Hanning Speke's expeditions and the indispensable role played by their local guides and carriers, particularly the former slave Sidi Mubarak Bombay.

The attempts to chart the Nile brought forth immense challenges, hardships, and discoveries beyond cartography. Millard highlights the resiliency, skills, and loyalty of African guides like Bombay who enabled the success of these journeys through the continent's unexplored interior, even as the same guides and their communities endured exploitation by a system that profited Europeans seeking knowledge, adventure, and imperial expansion.

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The unyielding downpours, alongside the oppressive warmth, frequently resulted in high-mortality fevers, and the trails were littered with thorns capable of piercing through the most durable footwear. The climate's unpredictability intensified the difficulties posed by the terrain. Burton and Speke encountered a series of challenges during their journeys, starting with a severe drought that devastated the region and sparked disputes among the inhabitants over limited resources, and then by sudden, intense floods that resulted in them becoming cold, soaked, and sick. The men's endurance slowly diminished, making them more vulnerable to illness and deepening their sense of despair.

The constant threat of encountering lions, hippopotamuses, and crocodiles was always a significant worry.

Burton and Speke not only grappled with the challenges presented by harsh terrain and sickness but also frequently encountered dangers from wildlife attacks. Millard portrays the explorers as perpetually tormented by the fear of lethal confrontations with rhinoceroses, lions, or crocodiles, a fear so deeply embedded that neither Burton's rational thinking nor Speke's courage could readily alleviate it. Frequently, the men's sleep was interrupted by the thunderous bellowing of the lion, the wilderness's most daunting predator, whose calls could travel for miles.

Speke had a particular penchant for hunting down and ultimately slaying the river's infamously dangerous denizens, the hippopotamuses. Burton, who was not known for being tolerant of animal slaughter, especially that of elephants, unless it was necessary for survival, often became enraged by his colleague's continuous hunting, which threatened the well-being of their entire group. As Speke and a small group of his companions traveled beside the Pangani River in search of hippopotamuses, their boat nearly overturned when a bull hippopotamus suddenly surfaced and aggressively stabbed it with its tusk. Burton found himself submerged in the water after his boat was overturned by a charging female hippopotamus during a separate expedition. Burton, Speke, and their companions remained vigilant against the constant danger posed by wildlife, protecting themselves with advanced British firearms and utilizing the expertise of the indigenous people.

The logistical complexities of organizing and funding large expeditions

Organizing a journey into the unknown territories of East Africa not only posed significant organizational challenges but also ignited conflicts between Burton, Speke, and representatives from Britain. Millard details the difficulties in amassing the vast array of provisions necessary for a large-scale expedition, such as sustenance, armaments, scientific apparatus, health-related supplies, and an assortment of fabrics and beads for trade, known as "kubonga." This arrangement not only bolstered the local commerce but also placed local assistants and carriers in a position where they had to make tough decisions regarding their sustenance, fundamental necessities, and their families' welfare. Continually troubled by financial constraints, the adventurers spent much of their scarce time in Zanzibar tirelessly seeking trustworthy and reasonably priced vendors, negotiating with both Arabs and their own crew members.

Burton often expressed his dissatisfaction with the insufficient monetary backing from the Royal Geographical Society for its adventurers, which forced him to allocate a substantial amount of his own money to the expedition's preparations and to offer extra compensation to his guides and porters. Speke resolved to undertake his next expedition without the company of another European, as the financial limitations were set forth by the Society. The challenges faced by the explorers were greatly intensified by the substandard nature of their gear. Burton's prized American lifeboat was abandoned soon after the expedition set out, and the donkeys failed spectacularly, succumbing one after another to illness, animal attacks, and the harsh terrain they were forced to navigate, leaving some men to carry on their travels with nearly two hundred pounds of cargo burdening their slender frames.

The system's inherent exploitation necessitated reliance on local guides and carriers for survival and success.

The critical contribution of local African guides and carriers, as well as the importance of native narratives, was essential.

Millard highlights the indispensable role that African guides and porters, who were enlisted from Zanzibar and other places along the way, played in the success of Burton's and Speke's expeditions, despite the British government's inclination toward valuing "scientific" data or insights from European missionaries or Arab traders about African exploration. The local inhabitants' knowledge, which included understanding of the local languages, cultural practices, geography, and hidden perils, was vital for mapping the uncharted territories of East Africa, although their contributions were often ignored. Burton, recognized for his deep respect for native cultures and his unwavering polite demeanor towards those who journeyed with him, was a staunch advocate for the unique skills of his team members and frequently consulted them for their insights when necessary.

Speke's mistrust extended to his superior officer and even to his subordinates, including his gun carrier Bombay. Without the critical guidance and support of local individuals who navigated, negotiated peace in hostile regions, provided essential food and water in extreme situations, supported them during illness, resolved conflicts within the group, comforted them in moments of fear, and protected them at great risk to themselves, the journey would undoubtedly have been unsuccessful. The explorers' trade success was heavily reliant on the local inhabitants' knowledge, particularly in selecting beads of appropriate value, which differed across the tribes.

The abbots' role, encompassing both its benefits and difficulties, also involved intricate dynamics with the native custodians who provided aid to the European adventurers.

The writer emphasizes the complex framework which required European explorers and traders desiring to penetrate unknown regions to engage local persons, referred to as "abbans," for their defense and the security of their belongings. This custom further underscores the strained relations between the native communities and the European explorers in the areas they sought to explore, revealing a system susceptible to exploitation by all involved. Burton and Speke quickly understood that the abban wielded complete control over their expedition, serving as their go-between, pathfinder, deal-maker, and interpreter, and also had the final say in managing the team's operations and assets, determining when to rest and when to move, how they engaged with local populations, and safeguarding their well-being, "even against their own countrymen."

Burton, who had a profound understanding of the institution's significance in establishing trade pathways, enhancing regional commerce, and guaranteeing the safety of foreigners, also became aware of its potential for abuse and subsequently developed a profound distrust of the system following Speke's disastrous expedition into a region of Somaliland that, in Burton's prior evaluations, was peaceful and secure. The necessity of maintaining a delicate balance throughout the journey was underscored by the decision to trust or question a local abban, as well as by the consequences of a poor decision. Interacting with the residents of the regions they intended to explore was fraught with dangers.

The disparities in compensation and working circumstances between European adventurers and their African counterparts were stark.

Millard highlights how the nature of expeditions was deeply intertwined with exploitation, particularly regarding the treatment and remuneration of African laborers. Burton and Speke made certain that those who guided, carried their loads, and safeguarded them were rewarded with exceptional liberality in relation to what they themselves earned. Burton received a monthly remuneration of £25, and Speke was compensated even more generously; however, the indigenous men who joined them on their journey, enduring relentless, arduous labor and extreme hardships such as famine and occasional detention in local conflicts, were pledged less than $5 per month, with the actual payment frequently deferred until the end of their expedition, provided they lived through it.

Even then, the assurance of equitable conduct was not consistently upheld, leading to disputes with the successors in Zanzibar, who contended that despite the initial agreements made by the British government at the outset of Burton's expedition, they were under no obligation to fulfill the financial obligations following its end. Burton and Speke, despite suffering severe health and financial setbacks during their expedition, chose not to give their team the additional remuneration promised by the previous consul, a decision that led to censure, with the consul distancing himself from any accountability.

The growth of the slave trade and the disturbance of long-standing trade routes resulted from European explorations.

Millard emphasizes the need to view Burton and Speke's explorations within the wider scope of East African history. Their objective to solve a longstanding geographical mystery became entangled with the malevolent activities associated with the slave trade in East Africa. The escalating demand for affordable labor among Europe's upper classes transformed an existing system of enslavement into a more destructive and deadly commercial operation as trade flourished. Burton documented his deep distress in his journals when he observed the desolation that the slave trade had wrought on Zanzibar, turning the area into a desolate landscape. Burton was acutely aware of his role and, although he strongly condemned the practice, he acknowledged his profound involvement in the system he detested.

Burton was compelled to admit that a number of the people he enlisted for his journey possessed slaves and would probably spend a substantial part of their income on acquiring more, even though he and Speke firmly declined the offer of slaves as presents. Burton and Speke, through additional deceitful actions, denied their fellow travelers additional financial rewards, claiming that the misplacement and pilfering of provisions nullified any claims to remuneration for the hardships faced. The position of Abbot also provided another pathway for the mistreatment of people originating from Africa. Burton, who was of the opinion that he had been intentionally misled and sabotaged by those he had hired to ensure his safety in Somaliland, strongly challenged the prevailing view, maintaining that British explorers should be able to travel through East Africa without being compelled to pay for protection. The result was a growing distance between him and those whose knowledge and skills he considered crucial.

Practical Tips

• You can learn from historical challenges by creating a personal risk management plan for your projects. Start by identifying potential risks in your endeavors, whether they're health-related, financial, or logistical. For example, if you're planning a trip, research common travel illnesses and prepare a health kit, or if you're starting a business, outline financial risks and set aside an emergency fund.
• Enhance your problem-solving skills by simulating a challenging environment. Choose a day to go on a "digital detox" hike, where you navigate a local trail without GPS or smartphones, mimicking the navigational challenges faced by explorers. This will help you develop your orientation skills and ability to handle unexpected situations.
• Foster appreciation for diverse contributions by volunteering in a community project. Look for opportunities where people from different backgrounds come together to achieve a common goal, such as a community garden or a neighborhood clean-up. Pay attention to how each person's role is critical to the project's success, reflecting on the importance of local knowledge and cooperation.

The local guides, along with individuals such as Bombay who had gained their freedom from enslavement, and those responsible for transporting provisions, were pivotal and had distinct experiences.

The narratives of the Africans involved in the expeditions were complex and often tinged with sadness.

Individuals in East Africa, including Bombay, were ensnared and subsequently sold due to the prevalent custom of enslavement in the region.

Millard emphasizes the indispensable contributions of local guides, exemplified by the extraordinary story of Sidi Mubarak Bombay, in supporting the explorations of Burton and Speke. The story traces his journey from his early days in East Africa, which he would later lament not remembering vividly due to his enslavement, through his time in servitude in India, to his return to Africa as an adult, ultimately leading to his significant meeting with Burton and Speke. Bombay, who belonged to the Yao community known for its Bantu linguistic heritage, grew up in a locality currently situated within the southern parts of Tanzania and Mozambique, an area rich in diverse crops like sorghum, maize, and manioc, with his community also participating in hunting and ivory commerce to supplement their income. The Yao, in conjunction with various African communities, worked in partnership with Arab traders to procure ivory and, as a consequence, individuals captured from the interior were traded in the coastal zones.

Sidi Mubarak Bombay was captured as a child when a group of Arab slave traders, who had been enslaved themselves as children, raided his village and sold him for only a few lengths of cloth in the slave markets of Zanzibar. The island's serene allure sharply contrasted with the appalling conditions of its notorious subterranean slave jail, a realm of despair permeated by the stench of excrement and the foul odors of decay and blood, where countless individuals were crammed in anticipation of being sold. Bombay undertook a perilous voyage of nearly two hundred miles across the sea to India after a grueling journey from the interior regions of Africa to its coast, where he was held in bondage for twenty years.

The perilous trek that enslaved individuals had to undertake from inland areas to coastal hubs such as Zanzibar.

The story recounts the ordeal of individuals who were captured far inside Africa and compelled to embark on an extensive journey by land to reach the coastal areas. Many people, already debilitated due to insufficient nourishment, succumbed to wounds inflicted in assaults on their settlements or died from hunger, sheer exhaustion, or dehydration. As they advanced, the hardship of carrying elephant tusks while barefoot intensified, with each group grappling with the immense weight of the ivory, which could sometimes surpass a hundred pounds. Reaching Kilwa, a trade hub located south of Zanzibar, signified just the beginning of an expedition that would introduce progressively difficult obstacles.

Millard sheds light on the brutal nature of human trafficking and its role in generating significant economic profits. Numerous people, devoid of familial ties, cultural heritage, and personal identities, were crammed into overcrowded vessels where, amid the inevitable tempests, a significant number succumbed to the ocean's depths. After finishing their grueling journey, the survivors were ultimately brought to the Zanzibar marketplaces, where they were sold to the highest bidders. The island's breathtaking scenery was a sharp contrast to the surrounding harshness. Numerous individuals, including Europeans who were focused on maintaining their societal standing and financial stability, willfully overlooked the paradox despite being actively involved in the trafficking of slaves.

In the Indian subcontinent, numerous Africans discovered that joining the armed forces frequently led to independence and power.

The author draws a distinct line between the hardships faced by Africans who were enslaved and taken to India and those who were sent to the Americas. In the United States, Africans were often compelled to toil on expansive estates held by Europeans, enduring a life marked by coerced work and aggression, yet in India, some were able to carve out avenues toward liberation and, on occasion, ascended to influential roles in governance and the armed forces. Despite enduring the harsh neglect associated with slavery, African elites in India frequently attained their freedom following the demise of their owners and sometimes ascended to positions of significant influence within the local hierarchy.

In India, most African slaves were given designations like Habshi or Sidi, which stemmed from a Persian word meaning Abyssinian, or an Arabic word denoting "chief" or "ruler." While domestic chores and agricultural work were typically carried out by Indians from the lower echelons of society, Africans were often viewed as emblems of prestige by affluent maharajas and were occasionally selected for roles as reliable protectors and members of the military. After his owner's death, Bombay chose not to seek a powerful role in the country that had previously enslaved him; instead, he decided to return to his native land and accepted a military role under the rule of the Zanzibar monarch. The exceptional ability of Bombay to support and direct those he met, despite facing many challenges, was recognized by Burton, who thus referred to him as "the gem of the party."

Individuals such as Bombay demonstrated remarkable resilience, creativity, and bravery.

Bombay's linguistic abilities and skills as a guide and interpreter, honed through his experiences in slavery

Millard emphasizes Burton's deep admiration for the personal and professional attributes of Bombay. Bombay, who endured the pain of being separated from his family and cultural origins in his youth and was held captive for twenty years, remained a faithful and benevolent associate, consistently willing to perform strenuous tasks without grumbling. His mastery of multiple languages arose not from natural talent or comprehensive education, but from his unwavering commitment to develop the necessary linguistic skills to effectively communicate with individuals crucial to shaping his future.

His early journeys through different areas within East Africa culminated in his capture and eventual sale in Zanzibar, during which time he mastered several local languages, including a variety of Bantu dialects. The period of enslavement in India sharpened his capacity for rapid learning. Burton understood the dangers that linguists might face in Bombay. After coming back to East Africa, he capitalized on his proficiency in languages to make a living, aiding European expedition groups by carrying their gear and leading them across the continent's most relentless and unexplored regions.

The expedition's guide from Bombay faced resistance and disdain but remained resolutely dedicated to ensuring the mission's success.

The author highlights Bombay's unwavering dedication to various expeditions, despite regularly encountering racial discrimination, verbal abuse, and physical hostility from those who relied heavily on his expertise. Millard emphasizes Bombay's unwavering resolve to continue with the journey, despite many challenges, in stark contrast to the contentious disposition of Burton and Speke's associates, who often showed a lack of perseverance and fortitude, even though they came from distinguished families and held high positions in the British military.

Bombay's loyalty was rooted in more than just his pursuit of a stable income or simple obedience; it also reflected his selfless character and commitment to preserving the expedition's integrity. Despite suffering through extended captivity and having every reason to mistrust the European men to whose success his future was now linked, he remained steadfastly dedicated to their mission. Millard emphasizes that Bombay's most crucial contribution to the expeditions he joined was his skillful management of the sensitive encounters between local tribes and foreign explorers.

Bombay's involvement was instrumental in fostering trust and reducing friction between the expedition team and the indigenous communities.

Bombay was not only fluent in multiple languages, facilitating communication in challenging situations where others struggled, but his acute understanding of the complex cultural and political nuances frequently escaped Europeans, who often dealt with these issues with a sense of entitlement and clumsiness. The author emphasizes his skill in resolving disagreements and his role in fostering harmony, reducing common tensions among the team of adventurers, in addition to the pressures that arose from Burton and Speke's incursions into the lands and societies of Africa. His calm and reflective demeanor, coupled with his willingness to confront peril, fostered trust within the expedition's ranks and among the African communities they met.

Burton and Speke were both aware of the significant part that Bombay played in their explorations, despite it being generally overlooked. This was partly a result of an entrenched racist system, which not only rendered invisible the complexities of African culture and politics but diminished Africans themselves. The situation was also exacerbated by the deficiencies inherent in his employers' conduct. Burton held Bombay in high esteem and was committed to shielding him from being taken advantage of, whereas Speke, who did not establish a sincere relationship with the African guide, let envy and mistrust erode their rapport. He later depended on the established racial ideologies of a pseudoscience called the Hamitic Myth to rationalize slavery, unintentionally laying the groundwork for racial prejudices that would play a role in a devastating event in African history: the Rwandan genocide.

The local guides, whose roles are frequently undervalued, left lasting marks and embarked on remarkable journeys, among which were the notable expeditions of the individual known as Bombay.

Burton and Speke recognized Bombay as the most distinguished member of their team.

Both explorers acknowledged the significant role Bombay played in their expeditions, with Burton commending him for his exceptional participation, and Speke relying heavily on Bombay's skill in interacting with indigenous communities and overseeing his team. However, they failed to secure appropriate acknowledgment for Bombay and his colleagues in the historical records of exploration. Their lack of concern stemmed from the ingrained system of racial discrimination that influenced their actions.

The Royal Geographical Society's members, fervent armchair geographers, were motivated by the desire to pinpoint the source of Africa's grandest river and to confirm that it was a British explorer who solved a long-standing mystery, thus fulfilling a nationalistic zeal tied to the dominance of the British Empire. In their pursuit of triumph, the explorers connected to the Society failed to acknowledge the crucial contributions of native people and were complicit in an exploitative system that, coupled with the introduction of slavery and diseases such as smallpox from Europe, devastated numerous communities.

Stanley's search for Livingstone and Cameron's journey across the continent both had substantial connections to Bombay.

Following the collapse of their partnership, Bombay pursued further explorations after they both made their way back to England. Speke met a tragic end due to a shooting incident, and Burton's final years passed with little recognition, his talents neglected and his ambitions unachieved, whereas Bombay continued to hone his skills as a guide and interpreter, embarking on numerous extensive treks. Millard notes that he was destined to play a crucial role in several of Africa's most remarkable exploratory endeavors.

Bombay was not only instrumental in the British-American journalist-explorer Henry Morton Stanley's quest to locate David Livingstone, who had vanished in East Africa during his explorations and anti-slavery efforts, but it also played a significant part in Verney Lovett Cameron's expedition, which accomplished the inaugural complete traversal of the African continent from the eastern seaboard to the western perimeter. His steadfast dedication to exploring uncharted lands was not only a testament to his remarkable navigational and interpretive abilities, honed through each challenging expedition, but also stemmed from a deep-seated bond with his homeland, a bond he consistently held in high regard.

Indigenous guides eventually received recognition and accolades from organizations such as the Royal Geographical Society, ensuring them a stable financial status for their later years.

As the 19th century gave way to the 20th, the prestigious British exploration society came to understand that the viability and persistence of their African ventures hinged critically on the vital support provided by local African individuals. Millard traces the evolution of perception from doubt to acceptance of local stories, once dismissed as simple myths or fabrications, to an understanding of their importance and reliability in scientific and cultural contexts.

During his tenure as the head of the Society, Sir Henry Creswicke Rawlinson acknowledged that without local knowledge, many regions would remain unmapped, even though the limitations of foreign expertise were known. Burton, along with his seasoned companions in East African exploration, recognized that working in harmony with the natural surroundings was more effective than trying to control it; this insight gradually earned the appreciation of the Society, which began to acknowledge and provide modest monetary backing to the local guides and porters.

People originating from Bombay were instrumental in forming communities for freed slaves and took an active part in anti-slavery campaigns.

Millard emphasizes the stories of young individuals who were taken captive and later freed, showcasing their fortitude in the face of subjugation and their rearing in the compassionate embrace of Bombay's orphanage system. Numerous individuals joined forces to back the exploration of Africa by Europeans, which led to the creation of settlements like Freretown and involvement in the fight against enslavement.

Practical Tips

• You can explore the impact of local guides in history by creating a digital map that traces the routes and contributions of unsung heroes in exploration. Start by researching lesser-known explorers and guides from various expeditions around the world. Use free online mapping tools to mark their journeys and highlight their stories, sharing your findings on social media to raise awareness of their roles in history.
• Enhance your understanding of linguistic skills' value in cross-cultural interactions by learning key phrases in a new language. Choose a language spoken in a region with a rich history of cultural exchange, like Swahili or Hindi. Use language learning apps to practice daily, aiming to understand how language can bridge cultural gaps and facilitate cooperation, much like Bombay's multilingual abilities did.
• Foster appreciation for the resilience of individuals who overcame adversity by volunteering with organizations that support modern-day survivors of human trafficking. Look for local nonprofits that aid survivors and offer your time or skills to help. This could involve tutoring, mentoring, or assisting with job searches, providing a personal connection to the strength and potential for independence that individuals like Bombay demonstrated.