PDF Summary:Ninth Street Women, by Mary Gabriel

New York in the mid-20th century was a formative setting for pioneering women artists. In Ninth Street Women, Mary Gabriel chronicles the lives of Lee Krasner, Elaine de Kooning, Grace Hartigan, Joan Mitchell, and Helen Frankenthaler as they navigated personal challenges and social upheavals on the path to becoming Abstract Expressionist trailblazers.

The book delves into how historical events such as the Great Depression, World War II, and the arrival of displaced European artists profoundly influenced the women's artistic development. Gabriel also explores how their backgrounds—whether privileged or constrained, traditional or bohemian—shaped their distinctive styles and dogged pursuit to break new ground through abstract art.

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• The use of large canvases was part of a broader movement to redefine art as an immersive experience, challenging viewers to engage with the work on a more visceral level. This approach was revolutionary and contributed to New York becoming a new center for the art world.
• Artists often evolve by learning from others while simultaneously developing their own styles. Hartigan's avoidance of directly adopting Pollock's style reflects a common practice of absorbing influences without direct imitation.
• In a predominantly male art world, de Kooning's support of female artists like Hartigan was significant. His recognition of their talent helped them gain visibility and credibility in the art community.
• Grace Hartigan was part of the Abstract Expressionist movement, which was centered in New York City during the mid-20th century. This movement was characterized by an emphasis on spontaneous, automatic, or subconscious creation.
• This was a key venue for the promotion of Abstract Expressionism in New York. Betty Parsons was a pioneering art dealer who supported many avant-garde artists, including Pollock, providing them with a platform to showcase their work.
• Cézanne was a French artist and Post-Impressionist painter whose work laid the foundations for the transition from 19th-century artistic concepts to a radically different world of art in the 20th century. He is known for his methodical approach to building form with color and his analytical approach to nature.

Joan Mitchell dedicated herself to exploring new directions in her art while pursuing personal autonomy.

Joan Mitchell's development as an artist and her defiant nature were influenced by the difficulties she faced due to a constrained upbringing and family discord.

Gabriel depicts Joan Mitchell's existence and artistic endeavors as a captivating mix of visual charm and challenges. Joan Mitchell often found her creative pursuits eclipsed by her own confrontational actions and decisions that seemed to sabotage her achievements, which she employed as a forceful statement of her presence among her peers in the art community. Unfortunately for those who knew her, the behavior they witnessed frequently cast a shadow over their appreciation of Mitchell's complex character, which melded a nuanced perceptiveness with a level of tenacity as pronounced as she demonstrated.

Gabriel explores the early development of Mitchell's character. Her affluent Chicago background was tainted by a lack of emotional connection that frequently defined her relationship with her mother and father. Her father, a respected figure in the medical field, harbored a hidden enthusiasm and untapped talent for the arts, which became the primary cause of her distress. As her mother, a former poet and literary editor, had sought refuge from her own unhappy marriage in books, Joan sought relief in her art and in a series of activities meant to distract her from the pain she felt around her. This pattern would repeat itself in adulthood.

Mitchell's exceptional talents were evident and recognized by all who encountered her from her youth. She participated in athletic activities to win over her father, who was not supportive of her interest in art. However, Mitchell, unlike other children who might surrender to such disapproval, was compelled to exert even greater effort. She excelled in tennis, water sports, and diving. Her involvement in figure skating deeply connected with the people of Chicago and cemented her legacy within the city.

Gabriel chronicles Mitchell's progression from fourteen to seventeen years of age, a period in which she not only thrived in skating, garnering praise for her abilities but also, despite some initial hesitation, eventually gained acknowledgment from her family. Her acclaim as the "Midwest's Renowned Ice Skating Monarch" was not achieved without personal sacrifices. Joan Mitchell's drive for success stemmed from a competitive nature, which originated from her longing for the love and recognition she lacked within her family, rather than from individual aspirations. The author observes that, regrettably, Mitchell could not completely disentangle her subsequent artistic accomplishments from that profound necessity.

Practical Tips

• You can identify and nurture your own talents by keeping a skill journal where you record daily activities and note any tasks you find exceptionally easy or enjoyable. Over time, patterns may emerge that highlight your natural abilities, which you can then choose to develop further through targeted practice or education.

Other Perspectives

• Some might argue that the notion of a "defiant nature" being a product of family discord perpetuates a stereotype about artists needing to have troubled pasts to succeed, which may not be applicable to all and could be an oversimplification of the complex factors that contribute to an artist's growth.
• Mitchell's confrontational actions may have been a response to the gender biases of the art world at the time, which often marginalized female artists, rather than a cause of overshadowing her creative pursuits.
• The perception of her behavior casting a shadow could be subjective, and to others, her tenacity and perceptiveness may have shone through more brightly because of her actions.
• Affluence itself does not necessarily equate to a lack of emotional connection; there could have been other factors at play within the family dynamics that contributed to the perceived emotional distance.
• The idea that Mitchell used art and distractions to cope with family pain might overlook the complexity of human motivation, as individuals often have multiple and overlapping reasons for pursuing their interests.
• The assertion that her athletic achievements were primarily for her father's approval could diminish the recognition of her talent and hard work in sports as valid and valuable in their own right.
• While Mitchell's figure skating achievements may have earned her local recognition, it's possible that her connection with the broader Chicago community was limited to those who were directly involved in or fans of the figure skating scene.
• The notion that her competitive nature was a direct result of her family dynamics could be challenged by the possibility that Mitchell had an innate competitive spirit independent of her family's influence.
• The interpretation that her need for love and recognition was intertwined with her artistic accomplishments could be an oversimplification, potentially neglecting other aspects of her personality and life experiences that contributed to her success as an artist.

Mitchell embarked on a journey through various landscapes during a time of personal and communal upheaval, seeking a group of artists that would solidify her artistic base.

During her early, turbulent years, Joan Mitchell sought comfort through her dedication to art. Her existence was characterized by a series of passionate and occasionally difficult connections, with her interactions with others and introspection being her sole constants. She found solace in the act of painting, which allowed her to convey her artistic instincts and emotional essence fully. Her path led her from Chicago to Oxbow, then to Mexico, and through Brooklyn and Manhattan, until she ultimately settled in France, bringing along not only the diverse artistic inspirations she had absorbed but also the profound pain from her early years that persistently haunted her life.

At each location, Mitchell discovered a fleeting refuge that lightened her historical load and fostered a supportive atmosphere conducive to her growth and advancement as an artist. The circumstances were temporary. Gabriel describes how Mitchell initially concentrated her artistic endeavors on representational subjects, even though abstraction was the dominant trend in the art world during that period. She noted that the leading innovators in the art world were choosing subjects that went beyond physical objects and their individual identities, encompassing the wider context of their existence.

As the 1950s dawned, Mitchell had shifted her focus to the production of entirely abstract pieces, devoid of recognizable shapes. Gabriel attributes her success to the decision to abandon her familial and Chicagoan roots in favor of joining the collective that frequented the Cedar Tavern and the Club. In the company of her contemporaries, the Second Generation Abstract Expressionists, she relished the freedom to explore every new concept, absorb and radiate various influences, and infuse her distinctive style into her creations, all within a supportive network of fellow artists dedicated to nurturing her artistic exploration.

Mitchell's artwork, while initially reflecting the stylistic elements of Pollock, de Kooning, Gorky, and the Surrealists, whom she greatly admired, consistently exhibited a unique style that was unmistakably her own. Mitchell focused on distancing herself from previous influences to cultivate a unique voice and produce entirely original works that differed significantly from her earlier creations. Her artistic pursuits garnered acclaim and recognition within the burgeoning New York art scene. She had left behind her days of pursuing success in Chicago's art scene. Success, however, terrified Joan. As Gabriel narrates, Mitchell and the artists she cherished were labeled as "peintres maudits," and for them to be devoid of suffering—an element deemed crucial to their brilliance—signified not just a transformation within the artist but also an act of treachery. During the time Mitchell grappled with these issues, the circumstances that would challenge her with the complexities of recognition and wealth were already emerging within the artistic circles of New York.

Context

• For many artists, being part of a community provides not only inspiration but also critical feedback and emotional support. This network can be crucial for artistic development and for navigating the challenges of the art world.
• Painting can serve as a therapeutic outlet, allowing artists to process and express emotions that might be difficult to articulate verbally. This is particularly relevant in Abstract Expressionism, where the focus is on conveying feelings rather than depicting reality.
• France, particularly Paris, has long been a center for avant-garde art. By moving there, Mitchell joined a tradition of American artists seeking inspiration and recognition in Europe, allowing her to further develop her unique artistic voice in a new cultural context.
• The temporary nature of these refuges might have encouraged Mitchell to continuously evolve her style, as each new environment presented different challenges and inspirations that pushed her artistic boundaries.
• An earlier 20th-century movement that sought to release the creative potential of the unconscious mind, often through dream-like imagery and unexpected juxtapositions. This movement influenced many Abstract Expressionists in their exploration of the subconscious.
• These were significant meeting places for artists in New York during the mid-20th century. The Cedar Tavern was a bar frequented by many Abstract Expressionists, while the Club was an informal gathering space for artists to discuss ideas and critique each other's work. These venues were crucial for networking and exchanging avant-garde ideas.
• The term "peintres maudits" translates to "cursed painters" in French. It refers to artists who are believed to be doomed to suffer due to their intense dedication to their art, often living in poverty or facing personal turmoil. This concept is rooted in the romantic notion that true artistic genius is intertwined with personal suffering.
• The 1950s and 60s were a time of significant cultural change in America, with shifts in social norms and values. Artists often found themselves at the forefront of these changes, navigating the tension between commercial success and maintaining artistic integrity.

Helen Frankenthaler showed a natural tendency towards artistic pursuits from an early age, fostered within a setting of affluence.

Frankenthaler's artistic ambitions and her quest for a means to freely express her creativity were profoundly influenced by personal misfortunes and an unyielding drive.

Helen Frankenthaler, depicted in Gabriel's book, came from a background of privilege, and her life and art were deeply influenced by a series of personal tragedies, starting with her father's passing when she was eleven years old. Artists, often perceived as deeply connected to their emotions, would instinctively understand that Helen's life was significantly affected by the loss of a man who provided happiness and stability. Her father was known for his honesty and held in high esteem by his peers, including influential figures within the legal and judicial systems that influenced the lives and futures of people across New York City and the state.

Helen was more entertained than intimidated by the distinctive characteristics of her father's personality, which might have overwhelmed others. According to the author, although his looks suggested something different, he was the quintessential example of a preoccupied scholar who was renowned within his area of expertise. Despite this, Helen's love for him did not wane, and throughout her early years, she nurtured a belief that he was beyond reproach. Gabriel depicts Helen's pursuit of the tranquility and innocence once nurtured by her father, a pursuit that is continually thwarted by the world's apathy and capriciousness.

Helen's life was repeatedly struck by sorrow, including the loss of family members in Germany due to the atrocities committed during World War II, the deaths of two prominent artists, Mondrian and Jackson Pollock, and the devastating suicide of her mother in 1954. The author portrays Helen's struggle to maintain equilibrium in the face of her inner chaos, characterized by anguish, fury, and confusion, as she endeavored to create pieces that were true to her naturally vivacious and optimistic character.

In 1952, after her time at Bennington College, she reached a peak of artistic freedom, which led to the birth of "Mountains and Sea," a work that maintains considerable importance within the realm of contemporary art. She failed to fully comprehend the magnitude of her accomplishments. Helen's personal struggles were evident in both her creative expressions and her interactions with others. Her life attained a measure of peace and stability upon marrying the artist Bob Motherwell in 1958, though this phase was fleeting. Despite the turmoil, Helen remained a formidable force within the realm of art, at times exerting an influence on her peers that could be quite overpowering.

Context

• As a woman in a predominantly male art world, Frankenthaler faced additional challenges. Her determination to succeed and innovate was partly driven by the need to assert her place and voice within this competitive environment.
• The absence of a parental figure can influence an individual's reliance on mentors and peers within their professional community, impacting their artistic development and career trajectory.
• Mondrian was a Dutch painter known for his role in the development of abstract art and the De Stijl movement. His death in 1944 marked the loss of a pioneering figure in modern art, which would have been significant to Frankenthaler as an emerging artist influenced by abstract expressionism.
• The trauma of losing a parent to suicide can affect personal relationships, potentially leading to difficulties in forming or maintaining connections, which might be reflected in Frankenthaler's interactions with peers and partners.
• Her breakthrough work, "Mountains and Sea," is known for its lyrical and fluid use of color, reflecting her optimistic and lively nature. This piece marked a departure from the more aggressive styles of her contemporaries.
• Frankenthaler pioneered the soak-stain technique in "Mountains and Sea," where she thinned oil paints with turpentine, allowing them to soak into the unprimed canvas. This method influenced the Color Field painters, including Morris Louis and Kenneth Noland.
• Bob Motherwell was a prominent figure in the Abstract Expressionist movement, known for his intellectual approach to art. His presence in Frankenthaler's life likely provided both personal and professional support, influencing her work and offering a sense of belonging within the art community.
• Her work laid the groundwork for Color Field painting, a style characterized by large areas of a single color. This movement was a departure from the gestural brushstrokes of earlier Abstract Expressionists.

Frankenthaler's intellectual development and interactions with pioneering artists established a foundation for her distinctive contributions to the field of visual arts.

Helen Frankenthaler's development in the art world was shaped by her relentless pursuit of knowledge, the cultural wealth of her family's background, and her comprehensive artistic training, as well as her engagement with New York's vibrant art scene. Gabriel portrays Frankenthaler as having a combination of sharp intellectual curiosity and a competitive spirit that verges on the unyielding. Her intellectual tenacity and boldness served her well in the ever-changing domain of artistic expression, a setting marked by the perpetual shift in standards for creating and assessing art, where the trailblazers of such changes frequently worked outside the boundaries of societal norms.

Helen experienced a feeling of fitting in with that milieu, even as she moved within the more genteel social spheres, given her background as a judge's daughter from an affluent, prominent New York family with German-Jewish heritage and a tradition of art patronage. Her background prepared her to assimilate the variety of perspectives and experiences encountered throughout her artistic development.

Elaine, Lee, and Helen grew up in a setting where the most revered artworks were chiefly the creations of European men. The three women were deeply involved in New York City's dynamic cultural and intellectual scene at a time when the American art world was beginning to be acknowledged for its substantial cultural influence. In 1929, Helen and her family celebrated the opening of an establishment dedicated to showcasing the most recent advancements in Western art and proving that the United States had not only met but also surpassed Europe's benchmarks for artistic creativity. Helen, along with her peers, quickly witnessed the validation of those assertions.

Initially, the Ash Can School in America depicted the impoverished neighborhoods of New York, which was followed by a surge of Abstract Expressionists, whose creations mirrored an era marked by strife and societal turbulence in the period leading up to and throughout World War II. This set the stage for artists like Helen, who rose to prominence following these tumultuous times and started to produce art that exalted personal liberty and the capacity of artistic expression to achieve human salvation. Helen stepped into a realm abundant in intellectual and creative wealth. The author articulated how she assimilated diverse ideas she encountered, seamlessly blending them into her personal and professional life, a self-assurance that was rooted in her natural tendencies and family heritage. She possessed the confidence to confront any obstacle. She had no doubts that she would.

Practical Tips

• Engage with a mentor or join a peer group that aligns with your interests to gain insights and feedback on your creative or intellectual projects. If you're drawn to painting, for example, you could join a local art collective or find a mentor who can provide guidance and critique. This social interaction can mirror the influence of family and educational environments on personal development.
• This practice nurtures intellectual curiosity by actively seeking knowledge and understanding. For instance, if you wonder why leaves change color, you'd write that down and later look into the science behind it, perhaps even creating an art piece inspired by what you learn.
• Create a personal "belonging map" of your local area. Identify places in your city or town that resonate with your interests and mark them on a map. If you're drawn to the arts, pinpoint galleries, theaters, and studios. Visit these places regularly to immerse yourself in the local scene and build a personal connection with the community.
• Broaden your art exposure by dedicating one day each month to exploring artworks from diverse cultures and underrepresented artists. Start by visiting local galleries or museums that focus on non-European art, or use online platforms like Google Arts & Culture to discover virtual exhibits from around the world. This will help you appreciate the variety and richness of global art, beyond the traditional European focus.
• Create a visual diary documenting how American art influences your daily life, noting everything from street art to design in public spaces. This activity will help you become more aware of the cultural significance of art in your surroundings. You might take photos of graffiti that catches your eye, sketch a unique architectural feature, or jot down thoughts on a public sculpture.
• Organize a small, informal art swap with friends or neighbors where each person creates a piece of art that represents what personal liberty means to them. During the swap, discuss the artworks and the feelings they evoke. This not only fosters community and understanding but also allows you to see the concept of liberty through the eyes of others, enriching your own perspective.
• Start a "cross-pollination" journal where you dedicate pages to different interests or experiences and then actively seek connections between them. You could write about a podcast on psychology you listened to and later connect it to strategies in a business meeting, finding ways to apply psychological principles to improve negotiation tactics.
• Develop a "Can-Do" list of tasks that push your comfort zone slightly further each week. Start with small challenges and gradually increase the difficulty. For instance, if public speaking is a hurdle, begin by speaking to a small group of friends before addressing larger audiences.

The seismic shifts in society and politics brought about by World War II completely altered New York's artistic environment, paving the way for the emergence of Abstract Expressionism.

New York became the new hub for intellectuals and artists from Europe.

Artists fleeing Nazi oppression found a vital haven and support at the Museum of Modern Art.

The global conflict known as the Second World War served as a catalyst for significant transformations in all aspects of life, impacting people on a personal level and instigating widespread global shifts. Mary Gabriel chronicles the rise of a significant art movement in New York, culminating as Abstract Expressionism became prominent at a time characterized by the financial hardships of the Great Depression and became firmly entrenched as the United States entered World War II in 1941.

As the war began, many male artists and sculptors with studios scattered across Greenwich Village enlisted or were drafted to fight against the Axis forces, clinging to the belief that the conclusion of these terrible times would usher in a peaceful period favorable for the flourishing of the arts. Numerous individuals were not returning. When they came back, they realized that their environment had significantly transformed from the once recognizable landscape. Their perspectives on themselves underwent a significant transformation due to their active involvement and auxiliary positions alongside combat troops. The milieu that initially shaped their artistic convictions also evolved as time progressed.

As the initial wave of artists left to contribute to the war efforts, the United States emerged as the favored haven for a significant influx of European refugees, including artists, writers, musicians, and intellectuals, who predominantly settled in New York. The city, which had previously sought artistic inspiration and guidance from Europe, suddenly emerged as a significant player on the global stage of art. This significant change in influence would have lasting and considerable consequences, affecting individuals involved in creating or appreciating art, not just the emerging American artists of that time.

Gabriel argues that the transformation was significantly influenced by the Museum of Modern Art. The museum, established ten years before the conflict began, focused on promoting progressive art from other nations and played a significant role in protecting artists threatened by the Nazi regime's censorship, particularly those whose creations diverged from the government-approved art norms.

Gabriel recounts how Alfred Barr, who led the museum, played a pivotal role in helping European artists flee the oppression in Germany in 1933 by collaborating with peers to create a sanctuary for them in New York. In addition to persuading skeptical museum trustees to purchase art that the Nazis had sold at bargain prices to finance their activities, the Modern also pursued monetary backing from wealthy patrons and local art institutions to ensure they had the means to endorse visas and aid in establishing a new home for refugees within the United States.

The author discloses the pivotal roles played by numerous individuals in the undertaking. Peggy Guggenheim carved out a unique reputation in the European art world with her roles as an art collector and gallery owner. In 1939, recognizing the growing menace posed by European fascists, she began to amass a diverse collection of artwork, which included pieces by renowned artists like Picasso, Braque, Kandinsky, and Klee. In 1941, with the Nazi forces closing in on France, she closed her gallery and escaped with her collection of art on the last ship departing for America. Upon her return to New York, she became a key supporter of the European artists she had encountered before, who were now living in exile, and she also championed the cause of up-and-coming American visual artists.

Context

• Alfred Barr was the first director of the Museum of Modern Art (MoMA) and was instrumental in shaping its collection and mission. He was a visionary who believed in the importance of modern art and worked to create a space that celebrated diverse artistic expressions.
• During World War II, many European countries were under Nazi occupation, leading to widespread persecution, especially of Jewish people and those considered "degenerate" by the regime. This created a dire need for artists and intellectuals to seek refuge elsewhere.
• The United States, relatively unscathed by the war compared to Europe, provided a stable environment for the arts to thrive, with economic resources and institutional support.
• The Nazi regime labeled modern art as "degenerate" and sought to eliminate it. This included works by artists like Kandinsky and Klee. MoMA's efforts were partly a response to this cultural purge, aiming to preserve and promote the threatened art forms.
• Peggy Guggenheim was a prominent art collector and patron who played a crucial role in shaping the modern art scene. Her support extended beyond financial aid; she provided artists with platforms to exhibit their work, which was vital for their careers.
• Securing funding involved convincing wealthy patrons and institutions of the cultural and historical value of supporting these artists. This was not only a humanitarian effort but also an investment in the cultural capital of the United States.

The introduction of European artists and their ideas transformed the conventional standards within New York's art community.

Before the intensification of conflict during the Second World War, the phrase "modern art" was typically understood by the discerning American public to refer to European art. Collectors of art from major cities often added works from local European artists to their collections during their travels, imbuing their assortments with a distinctive regional flavor. Mary Gabriel clarifies that there had not yet been a collective of artists in the United States capable of producing a body of work that truly expanded the limits of innovation. That changed dramatically when hundreds of European artists, composers, and writers were driven from their studios and homes by the war to settle in New York.

Discussions on the subject of art shifted as American artists, recognized for their outstanding talents, started to outshine their counterparts from France, Italy, or Germany. A group of esteemed exiles who shared common artistic endeavors and experiences of displacement found a sense of camaraderie with numerous artists in New York, which also ignited feelings of discomfort, perplexity, and antagonism. Gabriel depicts the deepening of emotions that arose from a burst of artistic innovation and became more profound as Americans came to realize the complete overshadowing of Europe in all facets of the struggle after the war ended. The once vibrant urban cores, previously alive with artistic and cultural vitality, had descended into disarray and devastation. In those cities at that time, the only entities imposing a new world order were artillery and armored vehicles.

In 1945, it was widely accepted that only in the United States, which had amassed unparalleled wealth following the war, could art thrive consistently and securely. The city of New York became the vibrant hub for artistic and cultural activities. The group of American artists who came of age in the chaotic period defined by the Second World War, surprisingly rose to prominence in the global arena of visual arts.

The artists, who had once drawn inspiration from European masters, unexpectedly found themselves in the global limelight, a position they had not sought, which compelled them to evolve their art while under the watchful eye of the public. The author reveals the considerable obstacles encountered by some in their efforts to reconcile the lessons of their revered forerunners about the true artist's intrinsic solitude, which existed on the fringes of an unaware and culturally barren society. Should the artists achieve success, they would strive to maintain their equanimity despite the potential for diminished satisfaction.

Context

• Many European artists formed close personal and professional relationships with American artists, leading to collaborative projects and shared exhibitions that blended diverse artistic influences.
• The economic conditions in Europe, especially after World War I, made it more feasible for American collectors to purchase European art. The exchange rates and the financial struggles of European artists often resulted in lower prices for high-quality works.
• Among the émigrés were influential figures like Piet Mondrian, Max Ernst, and Marcel Duchamp, whose presence and work significantly impacted the American art landscape.
• The arrival of European artists increased competition for limited resources such as gallery space, patronage, and critical attention, which could lead to feelings of discomfort and antagonism among local artists.
• During World War II, many European cities were heavily bombed, leading to widespread destruction of infrastructure, homes, and cultural landmarks. Cities like London, Berlin, and Dresden experienced significant damage, which disrupted daily life and cultural activities.
• The Cold War era saw the U.S. government promoting American culture, including art, as a means of demonstrating ideological superiority over the Soviet Union, leading to increased support for the arts.
• The post-war period saw the growth of a robust art market in New York, with galleries and collectors investing in contemporary art, further establishing the city as a cultural hub.
• Advances in media and communication technology allowed American art to be more widely disseminated and appreciated globally.
• Many artists believe that solitude is essential for creativity, allowing them to explore ideas deeply without external influence or distraction. This solitude is often seen as a space where artists can connect with their inner thoughts and emotions, leading to more authentic and personal work.

The evolution of art in the United States was significantly shaped by the impact of social changes and the strains of wartime.

A unique movement of American vanguard artists emerged, reflecting the inherent tensions and uncertainties of the time.

Gabriel observes a significant shift in the themes of American visual arts after the Second World War. Before the chaos, artists in New York mainly developed their skills and found creative influence by adopting color schemes and structuring their artworks after the styles that emerged from Paris. Consequently, their creations often appeared derivative, with critics from that period describing them as "lacking in novelty." It was also reflective of that era in Western art when, inspired by Freud and Picasso, artists sought to portray the workings of the unconscious through the visual language of the Surrealists, or the fragmented and disjointed reality that characterized the early twentieth century as they depicted objects in a shattered and abstracted form, drawing on the unique characteristics of a style that broke down objects into geometric shapes.

At the onset of their careers, they quickly garnered acclaim for their rapid adoption of the principles advocated by Breton and Matta, two prominent individuals in the group that sought sanctuary in New York after Paris succumbed to fascist forces. Prior to the United States' involvement, artists from the nation were recognized for producing art that echoed the stylistic approach of Picasso. The global turmoil and disruption ensuing from the onset of the Second World War had been anticipated by a diverse array of artistic expressions and conceptual frameworks.

As the conflict progressed, revealing the extensive devastation of both lives and structures, artists of various backgrounds felt compelled to reassess their artistic endeavors and their role within the societal structure. The authors detail how the primary concerns centered around two main questions. Can one truly immerse oneself in artistic endeavors when the target audience has been shattered or divided by arguments rooted in faith, patriotism, and ideology? During a period marked by profound and tumultuous shifts that upended traditional norms in every aspect of existence, what subjects should artists explore?

Gabriel notes the clear chaos that prompted the artists to seek sanctuary in New York amidst these uncertain times. She notes that several of these people faced the difficult choice of setting aside their initial artistic pursuits, goals, and envisioned paths in order to commit to exploring new creative methods. The artists experienced a profound compulsion to abandon their previously cherished beliefs, including the teachings of their mentors, while still honoring their legacy as they embraced the mysteries of the current era and the uncertainty of the future. During this challenging era, a unique form of artistic expression emerged in the United States, which, while innovative, was deeply influenced by traditional cultural legacies. Mary Gabriel portrays the movement as being propelled by ideals of romance.

Context

• The movement was deeply influenced by existentialist philosophy, which questioned the nature of existence and the role of the individual in an uncertain world.
• The desire to break away from European influences was part of a broader cultural movement in the United States to establish a unique American identity in the arts.
• Artists used techniques such as automatism, a method of creating art without conscious thought, to tap into the unconscious and produce spontaneous, unfiltered works.
• This style reflects the early 20th-century response to rapid industrialization and technological change. Artists aimed to capture the fragmented experience of modern life, mirroring the disjointed reality of urban environments.
• André Breton was a leading figure in the Surrealist movement, known for his manifestos that emphasized the importance of the unconscious mind and dreams in art. His ideas encouraged artists to explore automatic writing and spontaneous creation, which became foundational in Surrealism.
• Surrealism, which emerged in the early 20th century, often reflected the subconscious and irrational aspects of human experience. This movement, influenced by the political instability and social upheaval of the time, anticipated the chaos and unpredictability that would later characterize the global atmosphere during WWII.
• Influenced by Freudian and Jungian theories, artists explored the unconscious mind, using their work to delve into psychological themes and the human condition in response to the war's impact.
• The city was a hub for intellectuals, writers, and thinkers, creating a vibrant environment that encouraged artistic experimentation and innovation.
• The post-war era was marked by rapid technological and scientific progress, which influenced artists to experiment with new materials and techniques, further pushing the boundaries of traditional art forms.
• Initially, the movement faced criticism for its departure from traditional techniques and subjects, but it eventually gained recognition and became a defining style of the era.
• Jazz, as a distinctly American musical form, influenced the spontaneity and improvisational aspects of the movement, highlighting a cultural legacy of rhythm and expression.
• The term "romance" in art often refers to Romanticism, a movement that emphasized emotion, individualism, and the sublime. This could mean that the artists were inspired by these ideals, focusing on personal expression and emotional depth.

The government-backed art program was instrumental in nurturing a collective identity and camaraderie within the artist community through times of financial hardship and social unrest.

Gabriel chronicles the rise of a dedicated and closely connected group of artists who found acclaim as the Great Depression, in an unforeseen twist, became a catalyst for transforming the landscape of American art in the 1930s. By 1932, the nation was on the brink of disaster with a quarter of the workforce unemployed. Artists, already struggling to sustain themselves in a society that barely acknowledged their efforts, were among the first to feel the repercussions of the economic downturn.

The financial crisis led to a significant migration of artists away from their studios, which hindered their ability to pursue their creative work as their sponsors too faced monetary challenges, leaving them unable to maintain their support. In an era marked by gloom, Gabriel depicts President Roosevelt as a kind of protector. He launched various programs aimed at creating employment opportunities and providing essential services to the local residents, recognizing their critical need for work and basic necessities. People committed to the pursuit of art were eligible for assistance. The Federal Art Project was established in 1935.

Gabriel depicts the evolution of previously solitary artists within a desolate city environment into a tightly interwoven group, obtaining employment that provided for their needs and discovering a shared sense of mission by engaging in this initiative supported by the government. The murals, which illustrated the diverse aspects of American existence, were then exhibited in public spaces like schools, post offices, and airports, and artists also created more modest pieces for government buildings and military bases. Artists began to perceive their roles as essential to the vitality of the community, rather than as peripheral entities in a society that appeared indifferent.

The author highlights the pivotal role played by Audrey McMahon in guiding the New York branch of the Project. American skepticism about men pursuing professions that were traditionally not linked to masculinity, like those in the creative fields, vanished rapidly. The initiative led to the emergence of a new kind of urban inhabitant who combined the creative spirit of an artist with the practical skills of a laborer, participating in both the production of culture and the building trades. The early members of the New York School congregated in that environment. The supportive atmosphere within the group played a pivotal role in fostering innovative artistic pursuits essential for the emergence of Abstract Expressionism.

Context

• The initiative helped redefine the role of artists in society, positioning them as contributors to cultural and civic life rather than as isolated creators.
• Many artists during this period were influenced by Social Realism, focusing on themes of social justice and the human condition, reflecting the struggles and resilience of the era.
• Many artists relied on private commissions and gallery sales, which plummeted as disposable income vanished and collectors prioritized essential expenses.
• The programs were intended to stimulate the economy by providing jobs and increasing consumer spending, which in turn would help revitalize various sectors.
• The FAP was instrumental in documenting American life during the 1930s through its commissioned works, which often depicted everyday scenes and historical events.
• The shared mission among artists was not only about creating art but also about contributing to a larger social and cultural narrative that emphasized American identity and resilience during difficult times.
• By placing art in public spaces like schools and post offices, the program democratized art, making it accessible to people who might not visit traditional art venues like galleries or museums.
• The employment provided by the government programs offered financial stability to artists, allowing them to focus on their work and contribute meaningfully to society.
• Audrey McMahon was an influential figure in the art world, known for her leadership and advocacy for artists during the Great Depression. She was instrumental in connecting artists with opportunities that allowed them to continue their work during difficult times.
• During the early 20th century, societal norms often dictated that men should pursue careers in fields considered traditionally masculine, such as industry or business. Creative professions were sometimes viewed as less stable and not aligned with conventional male roles.
• The Federal Art Project was part of the Works Progress Administration (WPA), a New Deal program initiated by President Franklin D. Roosevelt to combat the Great Depression. It aimed to employ artists and provide public art to enhance community spaces.
• The shared experiences and challenges faced by artists during the Great Depression fostered a sense of unity and collaboration, which was essential for the exchange of ideas and techniques that fueled innovation.