PDF Summary:Hitler's People, by Richard J. Evans

Hitler's People by Richard J. Evans examines the individuals who played pivotal roles in Hitler's rise to power and the establishment of the Nazi regime.

Evans traces Hitler's early years and the events that shaped his extreme nationalist and antisemitic views. He then details the roles of influential Nazi figures like Göring, Goebbels, and Himmler in consolidating Hitler's control, suppressing opposition, orchestrating propaganda campaigns, and implementing policies that targeted Jews and other minority groups.

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Frank's academic prowess was evident in his achievement of a doctorate for his research on the legal traditions of the Middle Ages, as well as his thorough contributions to the modernization of legal practices. Before his appointment as Reich Minister Without Portfolio and Reichsleiter in 1934, he had responsibilities dealing with the Nazis' confrontational actions during their rise to power in his capacity as the Bavarian Minister of Justice. Evans highlights how the inquiries launched into the conduct of the SS and stormtroopers, especially their use of murder and torture to establish and maintain control in the early concentration camps, clearly disturbed him. Frank's criticism, however, did not stem from a sincere dedication to the ethical principles of Christianity or universalism. Frank, who was completely committed to the Nazi cause and its leader, changed his stance on the mass executions, having been convinced by Hitler during the July 1934 purge, referred to as the 'Night of the Long Knives', that such actions were a necessary part of revolutionary activities. Frank was committed to a judicial system that prioritized the objectives of the Nazi regime over a neutral legal structure that would apply rules and sanctions consistently to people of different nationalities, according to Evans.

Under Robert Ley's leadership, the German Labour Front asserted its control over the working class.

Robert Ley, a qualified chemist who had worked for the Bayer chemical firm before his political activities cost him his job in January 1928, became after Hitler's seizure of power head of a new organization, the Labour Front: It replaced Germany's powerful trade unions, which had been smashed in a wave of violence by the SA a few weeks before. In his role, Ley diligently expanded his bureaucratic reach across the country, drawing in millions of members and establishing a widespread infrastructure of regional, local, and workplace branches, despite encountering opposition from some within the Nazi hierarchy, yet he continued with the support of Hitler. He also created affiliated groups such as "Joy Through Might" and "The Aesthetics of Work," and collected substantial funds through compulsory contributions from all working Germans. Evans demonstrates that Ley allocated resources to not only advance the Nazi agenda of controlling the workforce and attracting former adherents of the Social Democratic and Communist parties to Hitler's authoritarian regime, but also to satisfy his extravagant whims by acquiring luxurious residences in Germany's most prestigious areas, which he decorated with art seized from victims and the toil of concentration camp detainees.

Despite his blatant corruption, Ley, like other perpetrators of Nazi crimes, never recognized that he had done anything wrong. He joined the Nazi Party and presented himself as an authentic representative of the people, with the goal of eliminating the class disparities that marked his early life and integrating the German workforce into a cohesive national entity, which would underpin the stability and affluence of the Third Reich. In fact, as Evans concludes, Ley's influence on social policy was minimal, with the shaping of such policies being driven primarily by the economic needs that arose from the Nazis' unyielding ambition for warfare and the enlargement of their territory. Despite Ley's use of grandiose rhetoric in his speeches and publications on worker empowerment, his primary function was to channel the support of the labor force towards reinforcing the Nazi government, thereby consolidating Hitler's control.

The spread of anti-Jewish propaganda was a key activity of Julius Streicher through his publication, Der Stürmer.

Julius Streicher, a former village schoolteacher and First World War officer, gained notoriety as the founder and publisher of Der Stürmer, a weekly newspaper notorious for its racist, nationalist, and antisemitic content starting in 1923, which cemented his infamy within the Nazi hierarchy and throughout the Third Reich after their ascent to power. Evans depicts Streicher as abusing his position to incessantly disseminate hateful propaganda, attributing to the Jewish people the blame for a multitude of disasters, such as the fall of the Kaiser's empire and the economic turmoil during the Great Depression. Before meeting Hitler in 1922, he harbored anti-Jewish sentiments and saw affiliation with the Nazi Party as the optimal way to advance and implement the beliefs he had already embraced. Hitler initially attempted to moderate Streicher's extreme behavior, yet ultimately found him indispensable because he had a talent for drawing large audiences with his oratory and his publication played a key role in disseminating Nazi beliefs among the general populace.

Streicher, unlike many high-ranking Nazis who emerged from middle-class or aristocratic backgrounds, came from a background deeply rooted in the artisan and small merchant community, which was often characterized by prevalent antisemitic views. The broadly circulated magazine often presented exaggerated and derogatory cartoons portraying Jews as vermin or subhuman, along with fabricated stories of Jewish malfeasance and immorality, as well as unfounded claims of 'racial defilement' and ritual murder, all reflective of an intense, widespread, and vehement hatred for Jews that went beyond a marginal faction. Evans depicts how Streicher played a pivotal role in the Nazi regime by establishing the ideological foundations that rationalized the persecution and extermination of Jewish people, thereby persuading a skeptical non-Jewish German public of the necessity for intervention.

Reinhard Heydrich was instrumental in expanding the jurisdiction of the Security Police and initiating measures against Jews.

Reinhard Heydrich, who came from a family with a professional music background, initially pursued a naval career but was discharged in 1931 due to misconduct. During that time of financial difficulty and individual turmoil, he decided to join the Nazi Party, a decision partly shaped by his fiancée, Lina von Osten, who had ties to the group. He delved profoundly into the complexities of the ideology espoused by the Nazis. Heydrich's rapid rise within the Party was propelled by his unyielding nature, complemented by his strategic and systematic approach to resolving issues with efficiency. In 1932, under Himmler's directive, Heydrich began establishing a network for intelligence and informants that, while initially concentrating on surveilling their own members, soon broadened its scope to include surveillance of regime dissenters within the country and abroad. Initially, Evans points out, Heydrich's SD paid scant attention to matters concerning Jews. He only began to champion the extermination of the Jewish people after understanding that it was a directive from Hitler.

In 1939, on the eve of the invasion of Poland, he took over the helm of the entire apparatus when various law enforcement bodies merged to form the singular Reich Security Head Office. He played a crucial part in enacting policies that were aimed at Jews. As the person in charge of Jewish emigration, Hermann Göring led the charge to drive Jews out of the country by applying economic pressure, using his control over finance and business, while Heydrich and his Security Service provided the essential elements of intimidation and violence, forcing the Jewish population to contribute to their own exclusion, not only by forming the notorious "Jewish Councils" but also by channeling their financial resources to support the emigration of fellow Jews. Hitler's proclamation marked a pivotal transition, detailing a systematic approach designed for the thorough and deliberate eradication of the Jewish community throughout Europe. Heydrich, following Himmler's orders, formed the Einsatzgruppen, mobile squads assigned to annihilate Jewish people of all ages in areas conquered by the advancing German troops, following orders that originated with Hitler.

The creation of a single-party political system cemented Hitler's dictatorial control.

The government carried out a purge of its internal opponents during the Night of the Long Knives.

By mid-1934, with the Nazis solidifying their grip on power, the internal conflicts among Nazi party members and the SA, in addition to the tensions with their conservative allies, had escalated to a pivotal point. The SA was instrumental in suppressing political opposition in Germany, thereby aiding the Nazi cause. The role they would play within the Third Reich remained ambiguous, and the relationship between Hitler and the organization's leaders was becoming increasingly strained. From this point on, as noted by Evans, the Nazis recognized the benefit of coordinating their ultimate goals with the existing military hierarchy rather than trying to transform the SA into an extensively supported popular militia. The apprehensions held by the armed forces about a potential takeover by the SA had previously compelled the high-ranking officers to take action, resulting in the orchestration of Papen's rise to power in Prussia in 1932. The military, following the introduction of mandatory conscription in March 1935, was prepared to expand its forces by preparing a new generation of soldiers for a conflict that Hitler and his close associates deemed necessary to rectify Germany's humiliating defeat in 1918 and to assert its rightful place on the world stage.

The Nazi leadership swiftly eliminated their political opponents within the paramilitary organization, bypassing any legal proceedings unless a trial and conviction could be advantageous to their cause—as in the case of General von Schleicher, who was killed with his wife, and the royalist Edgar Jung, who was charged with conspiracy to overthrow the government—thereby cementing the Third Reich's transformation into a single-party dictatorship. Evans suggests that this occurrence marked the end of the 'national revolution,' signaling a shift in the new government's focus towards prioritizing the military and entrenched elites, which in turn diminished the importance of the fervent ideologists who were instrumental during Hitler's ascent but had since become superfluous. The internal strife among the members was more akin to the ruthless rivalry depicted in mobster movies or the shrewd political stratagems characteristic of Ancient Rome, rather than the typical interactions within a political organization.

After Hindenburg passed away, Hitler's ascension to the presidency signified the creation of the 'Führer State'.

The death of the aged Hindenburg on August 2, 1934, at the age of eighty-six, marked the commencement of a fresh phase in the history of the Nazi regime. The initial surge of national fervor that previously propelled the movement into a position of shared governance with established conservative figures had significantly waned. After the Weimar Republic was disbanded, the importance of the SA waned, resulting in the elimination of its leadership and a reduction in its membership to prevent any threat to the expanding Reichswehr, with its prior revolutionary responsibilities being transferred to the exclusively male military forces. By mid-1933, the Nazi Party had effectively neutralized all competing political factions, and in their quest to solidify their dominance over German society, they encountered ongoing apprehensions from business executives, workers, and a range of people cautious of their policy trajectory or radicalism, particularly in light of the ongoing economic instability caused by the Great Depression.

Upon the death of Hindenburg, Evans depicts how Hitler deftly merged the roles of the presidency, which encompassed being the Head of State and the Supreme Military Commander, with his current role as the Chancellor of Germany to strengthen his control. From that point on, every soldier and civil servant had to swear loyalty to him as their 'Leader', instead of to the officially existing constitution. In August 1934, a plebiscite was held to ostensibly secure the German people's support for the substantial reorganization of the government, which indicated their endorsement of the new regime; indeed, the results implied that opposition to Hitler and his policies was minimal, mostly confined to a minority of unwavering liberals and leftists. The genuine support for Saarland's reintegration with Germany in January 1935 was actually the result of widespread coercion, meddling, and intimidation during the electoral process. By June's conclusion, Germany had transformed into a state governed solely by one political party.

The Enabling Act and the Reichstag Fire Decree were crucial in establishing the legitimacy of the regime led by Hitler.

Evans details the cunning exploitation of the Weimar Republic's legal system by the Nazis, which enabled them to climb to power and eventually establish an unchallenged one-party dictatorship. Hitler and his inner circle, despite frequently expressing disdain for democratic principles and the parliamentary framework, recognized the strategic benefit of manipulating the political system for their gain rather than attempting to dismantle it by force. The first clear indication of this became apparent with the implementation of the Enabling Act. On March 23, 1933, Hitler's regime, supported by non-Nazi factions, secured the authority to issue decrees that held the same weight as laws, bypassing the need for legislative or presidential consent, thus facilitating alterations in the foundational structure of the Weimar Republic. The Brownshirts' menacing behavior in communal areas, coupled with the intimidating presence of the SS and stormtroopers surrounding the Reichstag and exerting pressure on the arriving representatives from various factions, compelled sufficient lawmakers from different parties to support Hitler's initiatives. The Nazi Party's leader committed to protecting the establishments and organizations linked to the Catholic Centre Party over a period of two days of discussions. This is not accurate.

The Reichstag Fire Decree, issued on February 28, 1933, initiated the curtailment of civil liberties, purportedly to prevent a Communist uprising. The Enabling Act, in conjunction with other legislative actions, created a legal structure that enabled the Nazi government to suppress dissent, remove non-conforming judges, and incarcerate or intimidate those who showed the slightest opposition. Hitler maintained his backing for these actions, which originated from an earlier decree empowering the Reich President to rule in exceptional situations, a strategy that was first put into place in 1914 and subsequently extended by the Weimar Republic's officials to tackle the issue of right-wing terrorism. The obstacle for Hitler was to transition the backing from the initial conservative benefactors to his own Nazi party, even though they were initially reluctant. The links were far more pervasive. The roots of the treason statutes, later used harshly to imprison opponents of the regime such as Hitler following his failed coup at the beer hall, originated from the Weimar Republic rather than the Nazi administration. During the Third Reich, the scope of what constituted treason expanded to encompass individuals who expressed dissent towards Hitler or his ideologies. The legal structure of the Third Reich, as highlighted by Evans, had stronger foundations in the customs and mechanisms of the Weimar Republic period rather than in any comprehensive transformation.

Context

• Hitler's early life was marked by struggles in his artistic pursuits and rejection from the Vienna Academy of Fine Arts. His experiences in Vienna, coupled with personal losses, influenced his later political trajectory. Hitler's shift towards politics was influenced by his thwarted artistic ambitions and the impact of Germany's defeat in World War I. These early experiences shaped his beliefs and paved the way for his rise to power.
• Beer Hall Putsch: The Beer Hall Putsch was a failed coup attempt by Hitler and the Nazi Party in 1923 in Munich, Germany, aimed at overthrowing the Weimar Republic. It resulted in Hitler's arrest and a brief prison sentence, during which he wrote "Mein Kampf."
• Hermann Göring: Hermann Göring was a prominent Nazi official who played a key role in the Nazi regime, particularly in controlling the police forces and initiating political violence against opponents.
• Joseph Goebbels: Joseph Goebbels was the Minister of Propaganda in Nazi Germany, responsible for shaping public opinion through propaganda and misinformation campaigns.
• Heinrich Himmler: Heinrich Himmler was a high-ranking Nazi official who led the SS and played a crucial role in implementing the Holocaust and other Nazi atrocities.
• Hans Frank: Hans Frank was a Nazi official known for his legal acumen and his role in aligning the judiciary with Nazi ideology, contributing to the legal framework of the regime.
• Robert Ley: Robert Ley was a Nazi official who led the German Labour Front, replacing trade unions and controlling the workforce to support the Nazi government.
• Julius Streicher: Julius Streicher was a Nazi propagandist who published the antisemitic newspaper "Der Stürmer," spreading hatred and misinformation against Jewish people.
• Reinhard Heydrich: Reinhard Heydrich was a high-ranking SS official who played a key role in orchestrating the Holocaust and other Nazi atrocities, known for his efficiency and ruthlessness.
• Nazi propaganda efforts were a crucial tool used by the regime to shape public opinion and control information. Led by figures like Joseph Goebbels, propaganda campaigns spread misinformation, targeted specific groups like Jews, and aimed to create fear and obedience among the population. The propaganda machine utilized various mediums such as newspapers, radio broadcasts, films, and rallies to effectively disseminate the Nazi ideology. By manipulating emotions, spreading lies, and presenting a distorted reality, the Nazis were able to influence and indoctrinate the masses to support their agenda.
• The individuals mentioned in the text played key roles in the Nazi regime:
  • Hermann Göring: Led the Prussian Ministry of the Interior, using intimidation to suppress opposition.
  • Joseph Goebbels: Headed the Ministry for Popular Enlightenment and Propaganda, orchestrating influential propaganda efforts.
  • Heinrich Himmler: Led the SS, overseeing concentration camps and enforcing Nazi policies.
  • Julius Streicher: Published Der Stürmer, disseminating anti-Jewish propaganda to justify persecution.
• The Nazis utilized legal mechanisms like the Enabling Act to bypass traditional legislative processes and consolidate power swiftly. They exploited the Reichstag Fire Decree to curtail civil liberties under the guise of preventing Communist uprisings. By manipulating the legal system of the Weimar Republic, the Nazis were able to suppress dissent, remove non-conforming judges, and intimidate opposition effectively. These legal and political maneuvers were crucial in establishing the legitimacy of Hitler's regime and transitioning Germany into a one-party dictatorship.

The administration under Hitler adeptly used compelling methods of communication to shape public opinion and spread its ideological principles.

Joseph Goebbels held sway over the realms of media and cultural activities.

The establishment of the Reich Chamber of Culture resulted in the assertion of control and authority over artists and writers.

Joseph Goebbels wielded considerable power in shaping the cultural and media landscape, effectively sculpting the public's view, a strategy that continued to be emulated worldwide until the collapse of the Third Reich. Evans, however, outlines the constraints on Goebbels's power, showing that his control over the party's publishing activities encountered opposition, and he contended with notable rivals like Otto Dietrich, the head of the Nazi press, and Alfred Rosenberg, a key advocate of Nazi ideology. Hitler's aspirations to become a painter and an architect in his early years profoundly shaped his strong interest in the visual arts and architectural design. Nevertheless, Goebbels masterminded a comprehensive restructuring of the media and arts, organizing them into specific categories like those for music and literature, all under the broad cultural umbrella overseen by the Ministry of Propaganda. Jewish individuals were categorically excluded from membership in these organizations, a practice that, according to Evans, represents just one instance of the pervasive bigotry and oppression that permeated every facet of existence during the Nazi regime.

The burnings of books in 1933 were intended to destroy what was considered contrary to the ethos of Germany.

Goebbels utilized the stormtroopers' confrontational methods to create a pervasive sense of fear and suspicion across different areas engaged in Germany's cultural and intellectual pursuits. In May 1933, ultra-nationalist students from nineteen university towns across Germany collected works by pacifist, Marxist, liberal, and particularly Jewish authors and proceeded to burn them in public at the central marketplaces. During the assembly in Berlin, Goebbels announced the end of the era that had been under the influence of Jewish intellectualism. The government's actions were a powerful and symbolic affirmation of its determination to suppress any scholarly disagreement that strayed from its mandated ideology, as its leaders sought to cleanse the country of influences considered inconsistent with Germanic ideals or originating from Jewish ancestry. Evans underscores that this deed was not only a deep betrayal of Germany's rich cultural legacy, which had been considerably influenced by Jewish contributions since the 18th century, but it also sparked a wave of criticism from around the globe.

Shaping public opinion by employing films and diverse media outlets.

Evans illustrates that the role of Goebbels extended beyond merely suppressing opposition. The techniques employed by Hitler to disseminate his message focused on meticulously choosing language and imagery to create a sense of collective unity, a concept commonly known as the 'Volksgemeinschaft', which, according to Nazi ideology, had collapsed after the loss in 1918. He established a strong alliance with the nation's movie producers, providing financial backing, facilitating affordable financing, and allowing the sector's expansion to be primarily driven by market forces, while simultaneously imposing state control through the orchestrated removal of Jewish industry figures such as producers, writers, directors, and actors, and by limiting the entry of foreign films into German cinemas. Nazi propaganda films depicted the German people's unity under Hitler's careful leadership, contrasting this with the chaos and deterioration characteristic of the period before his rise to power. Goebbels exercised control over media and broadcasting, portraying Nazi Germany positively to its citizens and, when feasible, to the global audience, all the while hiding the atrocious deeds carried out by its security forces in concentration camps and other sites, and intensifying the demonization of those who resisted Nazism.

Efforts were made to cultivate an appearance of cohesion and standardization through initiatives like 'Strength Through Joy' and 'Beauty of Labour'.

The Ministry of Propaganda, under Goebbels' direction, imposed comprehensive censorship affecting every aspect of cultural life in Germany, such as media, radio, and the performing arts, and also spearheaded an assault on modernist art and literature, denouncing them as fundamentally "Jewish." Moreover, he extended his control to the sphere of employment by managing two affiliated entities that operated under the Labour Front, namely 'Strength Through Joy' and 'Beauty of Labour'. Evans underscores the variety of tactics used to mitigate the suffering and humiliations faced by workers, a result of an economy burdened by conflict, driven by Hitler's relentless pursuit of territorial expansion and conquest, with no labor unions present to fight for their interests. ' The program known as Strength Through Joy became famous for organizing a wide variety of events, such as outings and vacation trips, and was especially known for launching a fleet of cruise ships. The 'Beauty of Labour' program was instrumental in improving workplace environments through the enhancement of air quality and lighting, the creation of spaces for leisure, and the betterment of catering services for workers. Evans highlights that, despite workers often supplying the essential resources and labor for these projects, including improvements to factory dining facilities, this input did not significantly improve their earnings and perks. The opulent ocean liners functioned as premier stages for disseminating propaganda, primarily by high-ranking and influential members of the Nazi party, and remained out of reach for those with limited financial resources.

Alfred Rosenberg was instrumental in developing and disseminating the beliefs that became synonymous with the National Socialist movement.

The emergence of a new ideology rooted in ancient Germanic traditions and the ensuing offensive against Christian churches.

Alfred Rosenberg played a crucial role in forming the ideological foundation of the Third Reich but did not achieve the same level of notoriety as other senior figures in the Nazi hierarchy. Evans points out that Rosenberg's origins were atypical, having been born in Reval, a city under the Russian Empire's control at the time, with his forebears being German-speaking traders.

Practical Tips

• Explore the impact of media on public opinion by tracking your beliefs before and after consuming different types of media for a month. Note any shifts in your perspective and consider how the media's framing might have influenced these changes. For example, if you notice a change in your opinion on a political issue, reflect on the articles, shows, or social media posts you consumed that may have contributed to this shift.
• Create a personal "cultural chamber" by curating a list of books, movies, and art that align with your values and challenge you intellectually. Rotate the items on your list monthly to ensure a diverse exposure to different ideologies and artistic expressions. This could include subscribing to a new podcast, joining a book club with diverse viewpoints, or visiting an art exhibit outside of your usual interests.
• Analyze workplace initiatives in your own job or community by comparing their stated goals with the actual outcomes. Start a journal to document any initiatives, like team-building exercises or wellness programs, and note whether they affect morale, productivity, or financial well-being. Share your findings with colleagues or friends to discuss the effectiveness of such programs and brainstorm improvements.