PDF Summary:Frames of Mind, by Howard Gardner

People commonly view intelligence as a single trait: a capacity for learning and problem-solving that can be measured in IQ points. However, in his groundbreaking book Frames of Mind (1983), developmental psychologist Howard Gardner proposes that humans have numerous types of intelligence, and each intelligence functions independently of the others.

We’ll start this guide by explaining Gardner’s ideas about what intelligence is, as well as his criteria for identifying a particular type of intelligence. We’ll then discuss seven sets of cognitive abilities and why Gardner believes that each of those sets qualifies as a distinct intelligence. Finally, we’ll explore how the existence of many types of intelligence (as opposed to a single general intelligence) could impact educational practices.

Our commentary will explore the ways in which research has supported or refuted Gardner’s ideas since this book’s publication. We’ll also discuss some alternative theories of intelligence. Finally, we’ll provide some actionable ideas for how to nurture and enhance your own intelligences.

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(Shortform note: Research shows that linguistic development does slow after childhood—this is why adolescents and adults have more trouble learning new languages. However,there are various strategies you can use to keep strengthening your linguistic intelligence throughout your life. These include reading books spanning different genres, practicing creative writing, learning new languages (apps such as Duolingo can help with this), participating in debates or public speaking events, and playing word games such as crossword puzzles.)

Finally, brain structure and function play crucial roles in linguistic intelligence. Gardner says that language processing is typically localized in the left hemisphere (half) of the brain. He also notes that injuries to that area can result in various types of language impairment, which fulfills another of his criteria for intelligence. For instance, some head injuries affecting the left side of the brain cause aphasia, which is the inability to recall certain words or to use them correctly while speaking.

Is Linguistic Intelligence Found in the Left Side of the Brain?

Gardner’s statement that linguistic intelligence is found mostly in the left side of the brain echoes the then-popular theory of people being either "left-brained" (skilled with linguistics and logic) or "right-brained" (creative and intuitive). This idea gained popularity in the 1960s, following Roger Sperry's research about how the two hemispheres of the brain differ from one another. However, since then, neuroscience has debunked Sperry's theory. Modern brain imaging shows that most tasks activate areas in both hemispheres, which then work together to complete that task. Therefore, neuroscientists have abandoned the idea that one side is dominant over the other, and now view the brain as one integrated system.

That said, research supports Gardner’s claim about the left hemisphere’s linguistic prowess. Studies show that 97% of people process language in the left side of the brain; the other 3% are left-handed people who process language in the right hemisphere or both hemispheres. This explains why some people develop aphasia after suffering damage to the right hemisphere of the brain.

Logical-Mathematical Intelligence

The second intelligence Gardner discusses is logical-mathematical intelligence. Its core functions allow you to recognize patterns, follow lines of reasoning, and make connections between abstract concepts. This type of information is encoded in numbers, mathematical operations, logic symbols, and so on.

Mathematicians and scientists heavily rely on this type of intelligence in their work, albeit in different ways. Mathematicians are often driven by a desire to find patterns and create abstract systems using numbers; scientists, on the other hand, seek to understand physical reality through study and experimentation. Some such people—such as Sir Isaac Newton, Albert Einstein, and Stephen Hawking—are commonly considered geniuses.

(Shortform note: Logical-mathematical intelligence tends to be valued more highly than other forms of intelligence, particularly in the US (where Gardner lives). This is in large part due to schools emphasizing math skills and critical thinking, with traditional IQ tests and standardized tests like the SAT focusing on those abilities. This is why, for instance, someone like Einstein is commonly referred to as a “genius,” rather than as a “logical-mathematical genius”: People largely view those terms as synonymous. However, as we’ll discuss later, Gardner rejects the idea that one form of intelligence is more valid or more important than any other—on the contrary, he favors embracing and supporting each person’s unique strengths.)

Gardner says that, like linguistic intelligence, logical-mathematical intelligence has a clear path of development that begins in infancy.

At less than a year old, children start to understand simple cause-and-effect patterns and to make comparisons (like recognizing that one object is larger than another). They begin learning to count between one and two years old, generally by counting physical items they can see and touch. By age six or seven, children can perform simple abstract reasoning and work with hypothetical scenarios—for instance, “If I have two apples, then add one more, how many apples do I have?”

(Shortform note: While you most likely developed the foundational skills of logical-mathematical intelligence in early childhood as Gardner describes here, you can continue to improve your math and reasoning abilities throughout your life. Some common practices include finding chances to create complex systems and solve logic puzzles (“engine-building” board games are effective for this), training yourself to be more aware of your own thought processes (such as through mindfulness meditation), and continuing to study and practice math even after finishing school.)

Gardner admits that it’s difficult to say exactly which parts of the brain give rise to this intelligence. While certain brain areas, particularly in the left hemisphere, seem important for numerical and logical operations, logical-mathematical abilities may be distributed throughout the brain. This makes logical-mathematical abilities more vulnerable to general cognitive decline (that is, dementia), but more resilient in the face of localized brain damage.

(Shortform note: Another reason why it can be difficult to pinpoint where a particular type of intelligence comes from—and why certain abilities like logical-mathematical skills can withstand brain damage—is a phenomenon called neuroplasticity. This refers to the brain's ability to reorganize and adapt its neural networks throughout life by forming new connections and pathways between neurons. Neuroplasticity becomes particularly important following an injury or trauma to the brain, as it allows healthy regions to compensate for the damaged areas by taking on their functions.)

Musical Intelligence

The next form of intelligence Gardner describes is musical intelligence. Its core functions enable you to recognize musical qualities like pitch and rhythm. It also allows you to reproduce music you’ve heard (for example, by singing along to your favorite song) and create your own music—even something as simple as drumming your hands on a table is an expression of musical intelligence. This type of intelligence is encoded in musical symbols like staffs, clefs, and notes.

Naturally, musicians make frequent use of musical intelligence to write and perform their songs. Exceptional musicians such as Ludwig von Beethoven and Freddie Mercury are often considered to be “musical geniuses.”

(Shortform note: Musical intelligence is a fundamental part of being human, and some scientists believe that it’s one of the oldest abilities humans have, predating spoken language. Even species that existed before humans, like many birds and some primates, communicate information or emotions using vocalizations with specific pitches and rhythms, which is arguably a form of music. Furthermore, while famous musicians might be the most obvious examples of people using musical intelligence, music is part of life for almost everyone. For instance, people use music to communicate, to keep rhythm while exercising, to express themselves, and for entertainment.)

The development of musical intelligence follows a distinct pattern, beginning with infant babbling and singing. Children start producing distinct musical patterns and fragments of familiar songs as early as two years old. However, Gardner notes that musical intelligence often plateaus in early childhood unless caregivers encourage and guide its growth.

(Shortform note: Gardner notes that musical development can stop in early childhood if it’s not cultivated. However, with encouragement and training, a person’s musical abilities will continue to develop throughout their childhood and adolescence. In 1986, a research paper outlined the now-famous Swanwick-Tillman Spiral of Musical Development, which depicts the stages of development in a child whose musical ability is properly nurtured. The spiral model emphasizes that musical growth isn’t linear—rather, the child will often revisit previous stages of development and gain new insights from them. As a result, their skills may sometimes seem to regress, but this is a natural part of the learning process.)

Finally, Gardner notes that musical ability is largely associated with parts of the right hemisphere of the brain. This is one of the most important points in favor of musical skill being its own intelligence, rather than an offshoot of linguistic intelligence—which is localized in the left hemisphere—or logical-mathematical intelligence, which is distributed across both hemispheres.

He adds that there have been cases of brain-damaged individuals who lose their musical skills, while their language and mathematical skills remain intact (or vice-versa). There are also “savants” who have extraordinary musical talent, despite being developmentally disabled in other ways. This reinforces the idea that musical intelligence is a distinct phenomenon, separate from all other forms of intelligence.

(Shortform note: Gardner says that musical intelligence is largely located in the brain’s right hemisphere, but more recent research has shown that many other areas of the brain are also involved in processing music. Notably, the limbic system—which is located in the brain’s interior and responsible for managing emotions—shows a strong response to musical stimuli. This explains why even wordless music can produce emotional responses in people. Doctors have also noted that some patients who suffered damage to their temporal lobes located on the sides of the brain could no longer consciously recognize melodies, but still responded emotionally to them as long as their frontal lobes were undamaged.)

The Physical Intelligences

In the previous section we discussed forms of conceptual intelligence, meaning intelligences that allow you to work with abstract ideas and concepts. In this section we’ll discuss physical intelligences, which allow you to interact with concrete objects and the world around you.

The physical intelligences Gardner identifies are spatial intelligence and bodily-kinesthetic intelligence. As before, we’ll explain what kind of information each one of those deals with, then discuss how it matches up with Gardner’s criteria for an intelligence.

Spatial Intelligence

The first of the physical intelligences is spatial intelligence. Its core functions allow you to recognize shapes and manipulate them in your mind (for instance, when you imagine rotating a couch to figure out if it will fit through a doorway), and to navigate your surroundings.

Unlike conceptual intelligences, spatial intelligence doesn’t have a specific language or set of symbols associated with it. However, any representation of shapes and forms—from a child’s drawing to a complex blueprint or schematic—could be considered a way of recording and sharing spatial information.

(Shortform note: Another important aspect of spatial intelligence is the ability to understand your surroundings as a whole, and to predict how they will change. Adam Gopnik, a writer and avid sports fan, says that hockey player Wayne Gretzky exemplifies spatial intelligence (rather than bodily-kinesthetic intelligence, as one might expect). He says that Gretsky’s exceptional performances came from his spatial and situational awareness: Gretzky could predict well in advance how the other players and the opposing goalie would move. As a result, he was able to easily skate past defenders and shoot past the goalie. This ability led to Gretzky being the highest scoring NHL player of all time as of January 2025.)

Gardner points to visual artists (painters, animators, and so on) as an example of people who largely rely on spatial intelligence for their work: In order to create a work of art, the artist must first be able to picture it in detail—all of the shapes and forms the piece will consist of, and how they’re arranged in relation to each other. The artist must then be able to reproduce that mental image using whatever medium they work with.

Furthermore, people who are exceptionally skilled in the visual arts—such as the Renaissance-era sculptor Michelangelo—are often called artistic geniuses. This highlights that such people have exceptionally high levels of spatial intelligence.

(Shortform note: Gardner said earlier that intelligences are abstract concepts, not tangible and measurable things. Using famous artists as examples of spatial intelligence emphasizes this point: What people call “genius” often reveals more about their own time periods and values than any universal standards of intelligence (spatial or otherwise). For instance, Leonardo da Vinci and Michelangelo were widely recognized as geniuses during their lifetimes for their considerable spatial intelligence (though that term wasn’t used at the time). However, Vincent van Gogh’s unique way of seeing and portraying the world was almost universally rejected during his lifetime, and people didn’t widely call him a genius until long after his death.)

Gardner says that the development of spatial intelligence follows a distinct trajectory through childhood. Initially, infants explore their environment through simple actions like crawling, observing, and touching objects. By age three or four, children develop the ability to form accurate mental images. After that, they can learn to manipulate those images mentally, without the need to physically move or change the objects. For example, a roughly five-year-old child playing with building blocks may be able to first picture what they want to build, then accurately reproduce that image using the actual blocks.

(Shortform note: As with conceptual intelligences, there are ways to keep developing your spatial intelligence throughout your life—and many of them are quite enjoyable. Some effective ways to train your spatial intelligence include solving puzzles, playing video games such as Minecraft or Tetris, and doodling in a sketchbook. All of these activities help you practice visualizing shapes, mentally manipulating them, and arranging them to match an image in your mind.)

Finally, spatial intelligence is associated with specific areas of the brain, particularly the back regions of the right hemisphere. Researchers have found that a person’s spatial reasoning can be impaired by brain damage to those areas, while their other cognitive abilities remain intact. Likewise, people in cognitive decline often retain fundamental spatial skills—such as their ability to recognize objects and move through their environment—even as they lose other faculties.

(Shortform note: As with many of the other forms of intelligence discussed in this guide, more recent research has shown that spatial intelligence is not as localized in the brain as Gardner believed. For instance, one meta-analysis (a study of numerous other studies) published in 2018 found that spatial information processing activates a neural network distributed across both hemispheres that includes areas at the front, sides, back, and—to a lesser extent—the interior of the brain.)

Bodily-Kinesthetic Intelligence

Next, Gardner discusses bodily-kinesthetic intelligence. The core function of this intelligence is to control your body’s movements. This includes handling objects.

While this form of intelligence doesn’t seem intellectual, it actually involves sophisticated cognitive processes and problem-solving abilities. Even the simple act of picking up a spoon requires many calculations: How far does your hand need to move to reach the spoon? How will you position your fingers to hold it? How much pressure will you apply?

(Shortform note: Gardner explains that moving your body requires a great deal of subconscious processing and calculation, but some cognitive scientists believe that this mind-body connection goes the other way as well. The theory of embodied cognition proposes that your thoughts and emotions are fundamentally shaped by your physical experiences. For instance, people often approach abstract ideas through physical metaphors, like describing affection as "warmth" or importance as "weight." Similarly, a physical action that you associate with a certain emotional state can actually cause you to feel that emotion. For example, when you fake a smile, you can actually feel happier.)

As with spatial intelligence, there is no particular set of symbols associated with bodily-kinesthetic information, but Gardner says that movements themselves often take the place of such symbols. For example, someone teaching a skill or technique will often demonstrate it so that the learner can copy their movements—therefore, those motions are the method by which that bodily-kinesethic information is shared.

(Shortform note: The process of sharing information through movements is known as imitative learning, or mimetic learning. In simple terms, this means acquiring skills or behaviors by observing and copying others.)

Almost everyone relies on bodily-kinesthetic intelligence in their daily lives, but some people have exceptional control over their bodies, and Gardner argues that such people are bodily-kinesthetic geniuses. Examples include all-star athletes like basketball player Kobe Bryant and world-class martial artists such as Bruce Lee.

(Shortform note: Research supports the idea that some people have more innate control over their bodies, and suggests that such people reap more benefits from practicing than do people with typical levels of bodily-kinethetic intelligence. In The Sports Gene, journalist David Epstein cites a study showing that people who were more naturally adept at a task also improved at that task more quickly than their less-talented counterparts. This calls into question the oft-cited argument that 10,000 hours of practice can make anyone a master at any skill, indicating instead that practice provides a medium for genetic ability to flourish, but that it doesn’t guarantee everyone success at a skill.)

Finally, Gardner explains that while many parts of the brain and nervous system must coordinate to make your body move, certain areas like the frontal lobe and the cerebellum play particularly important roles in bodily-kinesthetic abilities. Damage to those areas can lead to impairments in motor skills without impairing other cognitive functions. Apraxia (the inability to make certain movements) is one example of this kind of impairment. This supports the idea that bodily-kinesthetic intelligence is a distinct form of intelligence.

(Shortform note: The example of apraxia lends additional weight to the idea that bodily-kinesthetic intelligence is indeed a form of intelligence—a capacity for processing and using information. This is because someone with apraxia has fully functioning muscles, but their brain can’t correctly use some type of bodily-kinesthetic information: The brain is unable to compile and send instructions to the muscles. Phrased more simply, the person is physically able to do whatever task their apraxia interferes with, but they can’t remember how to do it. Incidentally, and contrary to what Gardner says here, recent studies cite damage to the parietal lobes (located at the top of the head) rather than the frontal lobes as the most common cause of apraxia.)

The Personal Intelligences

The last category is what Gardner calls the personal intelligences. These consist of intrapersonal intelligence (understanding yourself) and interpersonal intelligence (understanding others).

Unlike the other forms of intelligence, the personal intelligences develop simultaneously and greatly influence each other, making them nearly impossible to separate. Therefore, in this section, we’ll discuss intrapersonal intelligence and interpersonal intelligence together.

Intrapersonal and Interpersonal Intelligences

Intrapersonal intelligence is your capacity to understand yourself, and to recognize and process your own feelings, motivations, strengths, and weaknesses. If you have high intrapersonal intelligence, you tend to be self-reflective, show strong metacognition (awareness of your own thought processes), and effectively manage your emotional states.

Interpersonal intelligence, on the other hand, is your ability to understand and interact effectively with others. This includes being able to recognize others' moods, temperaments, motivations, and intentions, as well as knowing how to respond in various social situations.

(Shortform note: Gardner himself notes that intrapersonal and interpersonal intelligences are nearly inextricable from each other. This suggests that they may not be separate intelligences at all. Furthermore, the skills that he attributes to these intelligences could also be explained by a more general emotional intelligence. In his 1995 book of the same name, psychologist Daniel Goleman defines emotional intelligence as the ability to recognize, understand, and manage emotions, regardless of whether those emotions are yours or someone else’s. This ability includes many things that are commonly considered “interpersonal skills,” such as navigating social situations and effectively motivating others.)

Personal intelligences start developing in infancy through the bond between infant and caregiver. Gardner says that this early attachment provides the foundation for both self-awareness and awareness of others.

During the first years of life, children learn to recognize their own emotions and to differentiate between themselves and others. By two years old they have enough self-awareness to recognize themselves in the mirror. Between ages two and five they develop the ability to represent themselves and others through language and play—for instance, a child who says, “I’ll be Batman, and you’ll be the bad guy,” is showing awareness not only of themselves and their playmate, but of other (fictional) people as well. From there, specific intra- and interpersonal skills develop on a largely individual basis.

Finally, Gardner says that the personal intelligences are associated with the frontal lobes of the brain. Studies have shown that damage to these areas can severely impact someone’s personality and social behavior, but leave their other abilities intact.

(Shortform note: More recent research has found that other areas of the brain also play significant roles in a person’s self-awareness, self-regulation, and behavior toward others. While researching psychopathic behavior, scientists noted that damage to the cerebral cortex can affect a person’s self-awareness. For instance, someone might understand psychopathic traits and recognize them in others, but not realize that they have those same traits. Furthermore, damage to the amygdala can impair emotional awareness and regulation, which helps explain why some psychopaths are so sadistic: They may be unable to control their own impulses or might not understand that their actions seriously harm others.)

The Personal Intelligences and Attachment Theory

According to attachment theory, a young child’s relationship with their caregivers isn’t just the basis for self-awareness and other-awareness. Rather, it has a significant impact on how that child will handle important relationships (especially romantic relationships) throughout their life.

In Attached, the authors explain that a person’s attachment style—how secure they feel in a relationship—is influenced by how emotionally available and responsive their childhood caregivers were. Furthermore, those relationships are expressions of both intrapersonal and interpersonal intelligence. For instance, someone with an anxious attachment style can’t tell whether their partner truly loves them (an interpersonal skill) and is also unable to manage the anxiety that makes them question their relationship (an intrapersonal skill).

Applying Multiple Intelligence Theory to Education

After discussing his theory about intelligence and the specific intelligences that he’s identified, Gardner explores some of the implications that his ideas could have for education. In this final section, we’ll discuss how educators could make intelligence profiles for their students highlighting their strengths and weaknesses, and how they might use those profiles to guide their teaching practices.

Assessing Students’ Intelligences

Gardner encourages educators to consider how intelligent their students are in each specific way, rather than just how “smart” they are overall. He argues that education is more effective when tailored to individual strengths and weaknesses, and such profiles would help educators make personalized plans for their students.

Thus, he suggests that educators develop ways to assess their students’ individual profiles. Rather than giving every student a battery of formal assessments—which would be time-consuming and stressful—Gardner proposes letting children do what naturally interests them, and observing their behavior. While observing, educators should consider which specific intelligences each game or activity relies on, and look for signs of giftedness or developmental delay in regards to those intelligences. For example, a child who naturally takes charge among their friends by deciding what games to play could be showing unusually high interpersonal intelligence.

Formal Education Versus “Unschooling”

Suggesting that educators let children pursue their own interests resembles a more formalized version of unschooling, which is a radical form of homeschooling developed by educator John Holt in the 1970s. Unschooling emphasizes learner-chosen activities rather than relying on a preset curriculum.

The foundational principle of unschooling is that children are innately curious and, if given the freedom to pursue their interests, will learn more on their own than they would at a traditional school. Therefore, unschooled children direct their own education through natural life experiences such as playing games, teaching themselves how to handle chores and other responsibilities, reading books that interest them, and interacting with members of their family and their community.

However, research has shown that unschooling produces inconsistent results—unschooled children are much more likely to lack fundamental reading, math, and social skills than their school-educated peers. Gardner’s idea, then, represents a middle ground that combines the strengths of both approaches: leveraging children’s natural curiosity to guide formal education, rather than to replace it.

Teaching Based on Intelligence Profiles

Gardner then discusses how educators might use information about students' intellectual profiles to design more effective instruction. He suggests educators should focus on either developing students' strengths, addressing their weaknesses, or pursuing a balanced approach.

He adds that different instructional methods might be effective for students with different intellectual profiles even when teaching the same subject matter. For example, when learning computer programming, students with strong logical-mathematical intelligence might benefit from an approach that emphasizes how computers interpret and execute code—how they “think,” so to speak. On the other hand, students with strong linguistic intelligence would probably do better with an approach that emphasizes the ways in which programming languages are similar to spoken or written languages, and how writing a program is like writing a story or essay for the computer to read.

To conclude, Gardner says that as knowledge about human cognitive development continues to grow, educators must consider new information when designing study plans and interventions. A better understanding of human intelligence will help guide better teaching practices, leading to a more educated and less frustrated populace.

Personalized Learning: Then and Now

Gardner’s suggestions here are not new ones—the theory of personalized learning dates back to at least the 1700s. However, the conventional classroom model—where one teacher could be responsible for 20 or 30 students—has historically made it impossible to provide highly individualized instruction.

Recent technological developments have created new opportunities for implementing personalized learning in public school settings. Adaptive learning platforms, powered by sophisticated algorithms, can now adjust instruction based on student performance and learning patterns. For example, DreamBox Learning, a mathematics education platform, continuously analyzes student responses and adjusts problem difficulty, presentation methods, and learning paths in real time to optimize each student's learning experience.

Initial research on adaptive learning technologies has shown some promising results. Studies indicate that when integrated into a comprehensive educational program, these tools can improve student engagement and academic performance. However, this is a relatively new area of study; education researchers emphasize the need for more extensive data and better control of variables before drawing firm conclusions about whether adaptive learning tools are effective.