PDF Summary:By Water Beneath the Walls, by Benjamin H. Milligan

Throughout the upheaval of World War II and the Korean War, the US Navy expanded its capabilities beyond traditional naval warfare. In By Water Beneath the Walls, Benjamin H. Milligan chronicles the formation of the Navy's commando forces and explores how these specialized units evolved to meet the demands of an ever-changing battlefield.

From the development of the Marine Raiders and Army-Navy Scouts and Raiders during World War II to the deployment of the Navy SEALs in Vietnam, Milligan details the history and inner workings of these elite teams. His meticulous account examines the triumphs and setbacks of early special operations, delving into the intense rivalries between military branches competing for dominance in unconventional warfare tactics.

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The US Navy's tacticians took advantage of the lack of Army scout raiders, which led to a greater emphasis on the contributions of the Underwater Demolition Teams (UDTs) in the Inchon operations, but they recognized the difficulties inherent in relying on swimmers and demolition experts in a predominantly terrestrial conflict against a swiftly moving adversary. In addressing this neglect, they concurrently managed the growth of the UDTs and began establishing specialized assault squads that were composed of volunteers from various allied forces, including American soldiers, Korean partisans, and elite British forces. For the Army portion of this effort, known as the GHQ Raiders, the US Marines of Rear Admiral James Doyle's Mobile Training Team would pull a ragtag battalion's worth of cooks, clerks, and typists from the "fat" of Eighth Army, cram them into Quonset huts at Camp McGill, and then hastily train them in the art of launching from submarines and conducting nighttime raids-essentially everything the US Army had apparently forgotten. The writer notes that the training regimen's severity was amplified with the addition of a British commando unit, mirroring the strenuous training that the Underwater Demolition Teams underwent in the Second World War. To command the raiding arm of the US Navy's Korean War Special Operations group, or SOG, Doyle would select a preternaturally competent Marine officer, Major Edward Dupras, whose service in World War II with both Edson's Raiders and Mary Mile's SACO guerrillas in China made him the ideal candidate to lead a unit whose mission requirements combined elements from each of his previous experiences. However, Milligan demonstrates that the GHQ Raiders, the US Navy's Special Operations Group, and the British commandos would ultimately never get the opportunity to test their mettle in combat. In the wake of the escape from the Pusan Perimeter and the developments at Inchon, there was a heightened need for traditional military troops, which resulted in the dissolution of numerous specialized squads to make room for the growth of the infantry forces.

Context

• The disbandment of the GHQ Raiders was part of a strategic shift in military priorities during the Korean War, where conventional forces were deemed more necessary due to the changing nature of the conflict.
• His selection as a leader for the raiding arm highlights the importance of experienced and versatile leadership in special operations, drawing on his diverse background in guerrilla warfare and raiding tactics.
• These were specialized units trained for reconnaissance and raiding missions. Their absence meant that other units, like the UDTs, had to fill roles they were not primarily designed for, highlighting a gap in the military's operational capabilities.
• The Battle of Inchon was a significant amphibious invasion during the Korean War, showcasing the strategic importance of naval operations. However, once the initial landing was successful, the conflict quickly shifted to inland battles, where traditional infantry tactics were more applicable.
• The Korean War (1950-1953) was a conflict between North Korea, supported by China and the Soviet Union, and South Korea, supported by United Nations forces, primarily from the United States. It was a pivotal moment in Cold War geopolitics.
• The American soldiers in the GHQ Raiders were often drawn from non-combat roles, highlighting a need to quickly adapt personnel for specialized operations due to the urgent demands of the conflict.
• These are lightweight, prefabricated structures made of corrugated steel, used extensively by the military for housing and operational purposes during World War II and the Korean War.
• British commandos were known for their rigorous and innovative training methods developed during World War II. Their inclusion likely brought techniques such as amphibious assaults, hand-to-hand combat, and survival skills, which were crucial for unconventional warfare.
• Edson's Raiders were a Marine Corps commando unit known for their jungle warfare expertise in the Pacific Theater during World War II. SACO (Sino-American Cooperative Organization) was a joint Chinese-American intelligence and guerrilla operations group in China, focusing on sabotage and resistance against Japanese forces.
• After these events, the military strategy shifted towards large-scale, traditional engagements rather than specialized, small-unit operations, which led to the reallocation of resources and personnel.

The contrasting results achieved by the Underwater Demolition Teams compared to the Army Rangers highlighted the Navy's growing recognition of the significant contributions that specialized commando abilities could bring to traditional naval operations, ensuring the continuation of such units after the conflict.

While the Navy successfully employed its Underwater Demolition Teams and other reconnaissance personnel in Korea, the US Army's concurrent efforts to establish units for similar missions that would match the effectiveness of the Rangers led to a significantly different outcome. The author's narrative of the Army's Rangers in Korea outlines their journey and illustrates that, despite their readiness and versatility in conducting diverse operations, the Army's lack of experience with amphibious tactics often led to the Rangers being insufficiently utilized, compelling them to take on roles as vanguards in daylight rather than as specialized night-time raiders. During the Cold War period, the highly identifiable American Rangers were hindered in their efforts to penetrate enemy lines and mobilize guerrilla units, which intensified strategic missteps, a problem that has troubled Army commanders since World War II. After the disastrous attack on Cisterna, US Army strategists, drawing on their experiences from World War II, decided to disband the Ranger unit and assimilate their specialized raiding abilities into wider infantry training initiatives, effectively relegating its storied past to a minor footnote in the extensive chronicle of the Army's conventional combat capabilities. Recognizing the significant role played by the Underwater Demolition Teams due to their successful operations in Inchon, the US Navy opted to preserve this unit, thus forming its first permanent special operations force.

Other Perspectives

• The preservation and recognition of specialized commando units could inadvertently create an elite culture within the Navy, which might affect overall morale and the perceived value of conventional forces.
• The success of Underwater Demolition Teams in Korea may not be the sole reason for their continuation; other factors such as political support, military doctrine evolution, or broader strategic needs could have also played a role.
• Amphibious operations are a specialized field, and the lack of experience in this area does not necessarily reflect the overall competence or effectiveness of the Army Rangers in Korea.
• The roles the Army Rangers took on could have been part of a larger, multifaceted approach to the conflict, where their visibility and presence as vanguards served a specific tactical or psychological purpose in the broader campaign.
• The Cold War era presented unique challenges for all military units, and the Rangers' struggles might reflect broader strategic constraints faced by the US military, such as the need for secrecy and the avoidance of direct confrontation with the Soviet Union, rather than a specific shortcoming of the Rangers themselves.
• The integration of raiding skills into the wider infantry may not have provided the same level of focus and intensity of training that a dedicated Ranger unit would receive, possibly leading to a loss of high-level proficiency in those tactics.
• The decision to create a permanent special operations force within the Navy could have been a response to evolving threats during the Cold War, rather than a direct result of specific operations.

The intensifying rivalry among different military branches, such as the Navy and the Army, for dominance in unconventional warfare tactics.

In the second section of his work, Milligan explores the vital rivalries between military services that were instrumental in shaping and evolving the Navy SEALs.

Milligan suggests that the ongoing competition for resources, personnel, and relevance in a changing world stage caused the different arms of the military to resist relinquishing duties that could be more suitably managed by another division. The Army's reluctance to sufficiently prepare its troops for the demands of amphibious warfare nearly rendered the specialized Marine Raider squads superfluous, suggesting that such operations were unnecessary. The Army and the Navy collaboratively founded the Scouts and Raiders School at Little Creek.

The battle for dominance within the top-tier US special operations forces reached its peak with the Navy's unconventional combat in China, which required a change in command and the dissolution of certain groups within the Army, the OSS, and the Navy.

The Marine Corps initially hesitated to establish specialized groups adept in irregular warfare, as Commandant Holcomb anticipated that their primary involvement would be in extensive, traditional conflicts similar to those the US Army faced.

The author's analysis uncovers a viewpoint that is pervasive throughout the Marine Corps. As Holcomb notes, people who prioritize the future often view historical missions as unnecessary, especially when they appear to shift focus away from more pressing future objectives. The historical progression also shows a shift in the Army's perspective on the Scouts and Raiders School, initially established to impart specialized military knowledge to the Navy, but later deemed superfluous by the Army.

Other Perspectives

• The Marine Corps might have been integrating irregular warfare tactics into their broader training programs, thus not requiring separate specialized groups.
• The unpredictability of future conflicts necessitates a flexible and adaptable military force, capable of handling both traditional and irregular warfare.
• Historical missions provide valuable lessons that can inform future strategies and prevent the repetition of past mistakes.
• The focus on specialized military knowledge might not fully encapsulate the school's role in innovation and development of new tactics and techniques for naval warfare.
• The perception of the Scouts and Raiders School as superfluous could have been influenced by budgetary constraints or political considerations, rather than a purely strategic military assessment.

The partnership at the Scouts and Raiders School highlighted the Navy's perspective on the Army's shortcomings in amphibious operations, leading to the Army's decision to disband the unit and focus on preparing commandos for missions on land.

Benjamin H. Milligan's depiction of these occurrences reveals the boundaries of cooperation between different military branches, illustrating that such partnerships often collapse, reminiscent of Tolstoy's foresight regarding "disunited" entities, due to each member's inclination to place their individual objectives above the team's unified achievement. The quintessential illustration is the bureaucratic quagmire represented by SACO.

Other Perspectives

• The focus on land missions could be seen as a narrow approach to modern warfare, where multi-domain operations are increasingly important.
• Milligan's depiction could be influenced by his own perspective or bias, which might not accurately reflect the broader reality of military cooperation.
• Inter-service rivalry can sometimes foster a healthy competition that leads to innovation and improved performance in both training and operations.
• Tolstoy's insights, while valuable, are not unique to him; many philosophers and military strategists have observed the difficulties inherent in coordinating among disparate groups.
• SACO, while complex, may have been an essential coordination effort during a time of war, where the intricacies of bureaucracy were necessary for the effective management of joint operations.

The SACO operation, originally established to aid Chinese guerrillas, transformed into a complex conflict that entangled Naval forces, troops led by Stilwell, and operatives from the Office of Strategic Services.

Born in the early days of World War II due to Admiral King's quest for a logistical and weather forecasting center in China, SACO rapidly evolved into a battleground of influence and control involving the armed forces' naval and land components, as well as the organization commonly referred to as the Office of Strategic Services.

The pact involving Tai Li and Miles reflects the domestic strife between Nationalists and Communists in China, which in turn curtailed the level of involvement and direct combat duties of the Americans.

Tai Li, who led China's secret service, extended an offer to Navy Commander Milton Miles to take charge of 50,000 Chinese guerrillas, an opportunity that Miles accepted with enthusiasm. He orchestrated a situation that granted him a degree of independence unparalleled among his contemporaries within the maritime military hierarchy. This arrangement stipulated that Miles, as the newly commissioned two-star general in China's army, would have control, along with Tai Li, of the guerrillas. Chiang Kai-shek viewed the American inclination to supply arms to Communist guerrillas with skepticism, recognizing that arming a significant group could jeopardize the stability of his nation. They aimed to establish an initiative under U.S. oversight focused on intelligence collection, without necessarily equipping insurgent groups with American weapons.

Context

• The U.S. aimed to balance its support to ensure that it did not inadvertently strengthen Communist forces, which could alter the post-war balance of power in China.
• Typically, U.S. military operations were tightly controlled with clear chains of command. Miles' situation was unusual because it allowed him to operate with a level of discretion and authority not commonly afforded to officers of his rank, reflecting the unique demands of wartime collaboration with foreign powers.
• The collaboration between Miles and Tai Li was part of a broader U.S. strategy to build alliances in Asia. This relationship had long-term implications for U.S.-China relations, influencing post-war dynamics and the eventual Cold War alignments.
• The Communist forces were also fighting against the Japanese, which made them potential allies in the broader context of the war, despite their opposition to Chiang's government.
• The use of guerrilla tactics was a common strategy in the region, but the U.S. was cautious about directly arming groups that might later oppose American interests or destabilize the region further.

Miles skillfully navigated the divergent objectives of the Army and the OSS, securing the dominance of the Navy within SACO and its evolution into what would eventually be known as the US Naval Group, China.

This tension added complexity to each choice Miles faced, yet the author illustrates how he was exceptionally equipped to handle it. Miles' deep understanding and respect for Chinese culture, which was more profound than that of many of his American peers, originated from his two significant stints in China before the conflict began. Throughout his time in the navy, he primarily led submarine crews, instilling in them the crucial importance of independence, as their survival depended on their capacity for autonomous action. Equipped with those virtues and an unwavering confidence in nontraditional approaches, Miles adeptly navigated the conflicting objectives of General Joe Stilwell, the Army's China Theater commander and his presumed ally, and the ambitions of OSS chief Wild Bill Donovan, who, from his headquarters in Washington, had identified SACO's guerrillas as the ideal instrument to achieve his global counterinsurgency goals. Miles cemented his leadership within the Navy's SACO by becoming the initial intermediary and rendering himself indispensable to Tai Li, as well as benefiting from the Army and General Stilwell's lack of a clear plan for overseeing irregular military forces, which was their primary focus.

Practical Tips

• Improve your strategic thinking by playing board games that require alliance building. Games like Risk or Diplomacy involve forming and navigating alliances, much like the historical example you're interested in. These games can teach you the delicate art of cooperation and competition, helping you understand how to manage diverse objectives in real-life situations.
• Volunteer with organizations that support cultural exchange or assist immigrants from the culture you're interested in. This hands-on approach allows you to interact directly with individuals from that culture, learn from their experiences, and contribute to their well-being in your community.
• Practice decision-making with a "coin flip challenge" where for minor decisions, you flip a coin and then assess your reaction to the outcome. This can help you understand your gut feelings and become more decisive, as you'll either feel relieved or disappointed with the coin's decision, indicating what you truly wanted to do.
• Develop a habit of conducting weekly personal debriefs to evaluate your approach to managing various aspects of your life. During these debriefs, ask yourself questions like "What went well this week in managing my finances/health/relationships?" and "What could I have planned better?" Use your insights to create a more structured plan for the following week. If you noticed you overspent on dining out, plan your meals and set a budget for the next week.

The military's increasing conviction that it held sway over unconventional combat was clearly evidenced when Wedemeyer decided to integrate SACO into his command, a unit that was primarily under Army supervision.

The book's narrative, which offers a glimpse into the early stages of SACO, includes details from the private experiences of Colonel John McGee, whose hopes of leading Filipino guerrillas came to an unexpected halt because of specific occurrences during his captivity in World War II. Now, with an unexpected opportunity to seize what was once lost, McGee can observe the Navy's distinct historical emphasis on independence and the prioritization of mission goals above rigid command structures, characteristics that empower its personnel to thrive in a conflict of unmatched distinction in maritime warfare history.

Practical Tips

• To improve your personal project management skills, adopt a strategy of integrating diverse tools and methods, much like combining units under different commands. For instance, use a digital task manager for day-to-day activities while incorporating weekly face-to-face meetings to ensure alignment and foster team spirit.
• Develop a personal contingency plan by imagining a scenario where your primary goal is obstructed, and then outline alternative paths to reach your objective. This exercise enhances your adaptability and prepares you for unexpected setbacks.
• Create a "second chance" journal where you document opportunities you feel you've lost and brainstorm ways to either revisit them or find similar ones. This could involve reaching out to old contacts, revisiting past project ideas with new skills or perspectives, or even reapplying for positions or programs you previously didn't get.

The unexpected result of the Kennedy administration's emphasis on unconventional warfare resulted in the Army's Special Forces becoming the only unit organized effectively for such operations, which unintentionally postponed the creation of a specialized Army commando-raiding role.

The author depicts the United States military's involvement in irregular warfare as it progresses into a period of intense and imminent disputes during the early days of John F. Kennedy's administration, highlighted by the unsuccessful Bay of Pigs operation in 1961 and the assassination of South Vietnamese leader Ngo Dinh Diem in 1963, incidents that had repercussions far beyond the immediate loss of life they resulted in.

Kennedy, influenced by the strategic concept of adaptable retaliation as proposed by Maxwell Taylor, and resolute in his commitment to prevent a nuclear disaster, recognized a specialized group within the US Army adept at engaging the Communists with a form of warfare that was both innovative and rooted in tradition.

Under Yarborough's leadership, the Special Forces expanded their expertise to master counterinsurgency, diversifying their operations beyond just raiding to encompass nation-building and humanitarian efforts, a transition that reinforced their reputation as adept advisors while slightly reducing their prowess in direct commando operations.

President Kennedy's appointment of Colonel Bill Yarborough to lead the Special Warfare Center at Fort Bragg solidified this focus. Yarborough adjusted his priorities from seeking active battlefield engagements to undertaking missions in times of peace, acknowledging that a group trained for specialized commando operations would face challenges in conflicts where enemies were not easily distinguishable from non-combatants. Yarborough overhauled the training regimen for elite forces, focusing on traditional combat techniques such as scouting and ambush tactics, while also incorporating aspects of societal development and state-building activities, including the digging of wells, agricultural practices, planting, and livestock management. After completing intensive training, the elite soldiers were dispatched to Vietnam with the mission of guiding and reshaping the local Montagnard populations into a force capable of achieving their own emancipation, reflecting the sentiments expressed by Kennedy. To carry out their responsibilities successfully, the specialized military group had to transition from a traditional military mindset focused on boldness to a strategy that emphasized compassion, insight, and benevolence, which were crucial in earning the confidence of the local population—a transformation that was just as challenging for the soldiers and their new commander.

Context

• The U.S. Army Special Forces, also known as the Green Berets, were uniquely suited for counterinsurgency due to their training in unconventional warfare, language skills, and ability to work closely with local populations.
• By engaging in these activities, Special Forces aimed to create stable environments that could resist insurgent influences, thereby supporting broader U.S. foreign policy goals.
• Yarborough's leadership led to changes in training and doctrine that emphasized not only military skills but also language proficiency and cultural awareness, which were vital for advisory missions.
• Engaging in non-combat missions might reduce the frequency of direct combat engagements, leading to less real-world experience in commando operations, which is crucial for maintaining high levels of proficiency.
• President John F. Kennedy was a strong advocate for unconventional warfare and counterinsurgency during the Cold War. He believed in the importance of flexible military strategies to combat the spread of communism, particularly in regions like Southeast Asia.
• Engaging in humanitarian efforts and development projects was seen as a way to stabilize regions, build alliances, and prevent the spread of communism by improving local living conditions.
• International laws, such as the Geneva Conventions, emphasize the protection of civilians in conflict zones, influencing military strategies and operations.
• The Vietnam War was a complex conflict involving not just military battles but also efforts to win the "hearts and minds" of the Vietnamese people. This required a nuanced approach that combined military action with civic engagement.
• These are foundational military skills that have been used historically in warfare, including hand-to-hand combat, marksmanship, and the use of various weapons. They form the basis of military training and are essential for soldiers to effectively engage in direct combat situations.
• Training in societal development required soldiers to understand and respect local customs and traditions, which was crucial for building trust and cooperation with indigenous populations.
• The training provided to the Montagnards included not only military tactics but also aspects of self-sufficiency and community development. This dual focus was intended to empower them to resist communist influence independently while improving their quality of life.
• Kennedy's establishment of the Peace Corps in 1961 highlighted his belief in using American expertise and goodwill to foster development and understanding in other countries, a civilian parallel to the military's nation-building efforts.
• The emphasis on compassion and insight was part of psychological operations aimed at winning hearts and minds, a strategy to gain local support and undermine enemy influence.
• The transition included psychological operations designed to influence the attitudes and behaviors of the local population, making them more receptive to the presence and goals of the Special Forces.
• Soldiers needed to acquire new skills in areas like agriculture and infrastructure development, which were outside their traditional military training.

The military ultimately recognized the need to bolster their premier units by incorporating dedicated teams like the 75th Ranger Regiment and the 1st Special Forces Operational Detachment-Delta (Delta Force), following the SEALs' established reputation for direct-action operations.

Over the three years following Kennedy's visit to Fort Bragg, the Special Forces transformed into a robust group of emissaries committed to winning the confidence and backing of the Vietnamese populace, setting a high standard for future counterinsurgency initiatives. Their success inadvertently led to a decrease in relevance for carrying out the rapid, unexpected strikes that were their original purpose, which, as noted by the author, resulted in an unforeseen gap that allowed the Navy SEALs to rise as the premier specialized commando force within the US military.

Context

• Officially known as the 1st Special Forces Operational Detachment-Delta, this is a highly secretive and elite special operations force of the U.S. Army. It is tasked with counter-terrorism, hostage rescue, and direct action missions. Delta Force operators are selected from the best of the Army's ranks, including the Rangers and Special Forces.
• Direct-action operations refer to short-duration strikes and other small-scale offensive actions conducted as a special operation in hostile, denied, or politically sensitive environments. These operations require precise execution and are often aimed at capturing or eliminating high-value targets.
• Fort Bragg, located in North Carolina, is a major U.S. Army installation and the home of the Airborne and Special Operations Forces. It played a crucial role in training and developing Special Forces capabilities.

The inception of the Navy SEALs dates back to the Second World War, and by the Vietnam War era, they had developed into a premier fighting force.

The final segment of the story transitions to the SEALs' evolution, tracing their development from a group originally concentrating on reconnaissance and destructive operations to their present role as the foremost elite military units in the United States, a rise that might seem coincidental without the author's thorough analysis of the historical elements that enhanced their standing.

Throughout this section, Milligan underscores the significant disparity between the intended plans and the eventual outcomes: The founders intended to create a naval force adept in specialized raids, which had ceased to be operations of the Army and Marines, but they lacked a detailed strategy for its execution or a definitive understanding of its function in operations. The author depicts the SEAL Teams' voyage to Vietnam, highlighting their transformation from initial doubt to a result that was unexpected from the start.

The rigorous training program initiated by Draper Kauffman at Fort Pierce was instrumental in cultivating the technical prowess and enduring tenacity that would characterize all future SEALs as they assumed their roles.

The inception of SEAL missions can be traced to the World War II period, during which Draper Kauffman pioneered the idea of creating a group characterized by exceptional mental and physical fortitude, charged with detecting and neutralizing underwater obstacles. Milligan's outlook was profoundly influenced by the courageous volunteers from the French Corps Franc, who were once part of his medical squad during Germany's advance into French lands. The volunteers were distinguished by their shared commitment and inclination toward daring actions, traits that Kauffman admired yet continually aimed to temper during his time in the navy. Kauffman's objective was to discern and remove applicants who did not possess the required fortitude for forthcoming trials by subjecting them to strenuous physical evaluations, boat contests, and drills that included live fire exercises to mimic combat conditions. The training initiative evolved into a program known as the UDTR and would subsequently gain recognition as BUD/S, renowned for being the most demanding physical training regimen in the United States military.

Context

• Fort Pierce is located in Florida and was chosen as the site for the training program due to its challenging coastal environment, which provided ideal conditions for amphibious training exercises.
• The acronym SEAL stands for Sea, Air, and Land, highlighting the versatility and broad operational capabilities of the teams, which were designed to operate in all environments and undertake a wide range of missions.
• Draper Kauffman was an officer in the U.S. Navy who is credited with establishing the first U.S. Navy Combat Demolition Units, which were precursors to the Navy SEALs. His experiences in Europe during the early years of World War II, including witnessing the fall of France, shaped his understanding of unconventional warfare.
• The French Corps Franc were known for their guerrilla tactics and bravery during the German invasion of France. Kauffman’s exposure to their methods highlighted the importance of controlled aggression and adaptability in combat situations.
• The program Kauffman initiated eventually evolved into what is now known as Basic Underwater Demolition/SEAL (BUD/S) training, which remains one of the most challenging military training programs in the world.
• Candidates undergo extreme physical challenges, including long-distance running, swimming, and obstacle courses, as well as mental tests that require problem-solving under stress and sleep deprivation.

The coastal operations conducted by the precursors to the SEAL teams, known for their expertise in underwater demolition, were recognized as the foundational groundwork for the subsequent inland missions of the SEAL teams, which culminated in the amalgamation under the SEAL designation and the establishment of the most rigorous physical unit in the US military.

The SEALs' evolution, shaped by the foundational work of the Underwater Demolition Teams, has resulted in unique paths and destinies, as highlighted by Milligan. Admiral Burke's establishment of the SEALs in 1961 marked the beginning of a unit that was not simply an extension of the Underwater Demolition Teams on terra firma nor solely focused on maritime tasks, thus clarifying common misconceptions about the SEALs. This specialized force was adept at conducting operations across every conceivable aspect of a limited-scale conflict. The initial orders issued to the SEALs exemplify this concept. During their initial training phase, each SEAL member was thoroughly trained in underwater explosives and the operation of surveillance vessels, and they also mastered a broad spectrum of warfare techniques, including parachuting and jungle combat, reaching a level of proficiency comparable to that of elite military groups. The decision to cultivate a broad spectrum of combat skills signified a crucial juncture in the SEALs' heritage, laying the groundwork for their transformation into a multifaceted unit ready to execute a variety of assignments, despite the fact that this flexibility was not immediately evident.

Context

• The UDTs fostered a culture of resilience and innovation, traits that were integral to the SEALs' identity. This culture emphasized adaptability and problem-solving, crucial for the diverse missions SEALs would undertake.
• Admiral Arleigh Burke was the Chief of Naval Operations from 1955 to 1961. His vision for the SEALs was influenced by the need for a versatile maritime special operations force during the Cold War, capable of unconventional warfare.
• Public perception often associates SEALs with high-profile land operations, such as the raid on Osama bin Laden's compound, highlighting their significant role beyond maritime tasks.
• SEALs often receive language and cultural training to prepare for missions in diverse global regions, facilitating better interaction with local populations and allies.
• This involves learning survival, navigation, and combat tactics specific to dense, tropical environments. Skills include camouflage, tracking, and dealing with the unique challenges of jungle terrain, such as humidity and wildlife.
• These are military engagements that are smaller in scope than full-scale wars, often involving specific objectives and limited troop deployments. They can include counterinsurgency, peacekeeping, and special operations missions.
• The SEALs have historically integrated cutting-edge technology into their operations, from advanced diving equipment to sophisticated surveillance tools, enhancing their capability to perform diverse missions.
• The SEALs were established during the Cold War, a period marked by unconventional warfare and the need for versatile military units capable of responding to diverse global threats.

The SEALs, a special operations force, capitalized on a distinct combination of factors to establish themselves as forward-engaging fighters in the riverine zones during the Vietnam War.

In 1965, after the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution escalated the involvement of the United States in the Vietnam War, the SEALs commenced their first direct action mission, marking a significant departure from the initial intentions of their founders. As Milligan describes, the Navy's elite commandos began their service in Vietnam by sharing their expert skills with various local Vietnamese teams, who were responsible for a range of operations including scouting for suitable landing areas, supporting Navy river patrols, and training local fishers, showcasing a deep understanding of the intricacies of irregular combat, while also reflecting past mistakes made by comparable specialized units. The focus of the SEALs shifted to improving the skills of their Vietnamese counterparts, marking a transition from direct engagement to a role that was more supportive in nature. Admiral Ward, the Navy's newly appointed commander for all forces in Vietnam, collaborated with the leaders of the newly established SEAL teams to strategically deploy their units in readiness for swift and decisive action. The author redirects attention to the regions that underscored the SEALs' peak operational efficiency.

Admiral Ward, who had a wealth of experience in submarine operations, provided the SEALs with an exceptional level of independence, which allowed them to overcome previous limitations in naval warfare.

In 1966, the first SEAL team, focusing on critical combat assignments, initiated their deployment in Vietnam by setting up their main operational base at Nha Be, located on the fringe of the Mekong Delta, coinciding with the nearby engagements undertaken by the US Army. The naval forces in the region were commanded by Admiral Norvell G. Ward during this time. During his tenure in the submarine force, Ward accumulated a wealth of experience in combat situations, which shaped his approach to emphasize proactive measures and robust intelligence gathering, with his career accomplishments underscoring the vital significance of confidence and a proactive mindset, elements that became the cornerstone of his approach to leadership.

Context

• The independence granted to SEAL teams allowed them to adapt quickly to changing battlefield conditions, employing innovative tactics that were not possible under more rigid command structures.
• The base at Nha Be served as a hub for launching operations, gathering intelligence, and coordinating with other military units, providing logistical and tactical support for missions in the region.
• Being on the fringe of the Mekong Delta provided logistical benefits, such as easier access to supply routes and the ability to quickly deploy forces into various parts of the delta region.
• The deployment of SEALs alongside the US Army highlights the need for inter-service cooperation in Vietnam, where different branches of the military worked together to achieve strategic objectives, leveraging each other's strengths.
• Submarine service during Ward's era involved advanced technology and navigation systems, which would have provided him with a deep understanding of naval technology and its applications in warfare.
• Robust intelligence gathering is critical in naval operations to anticipate enemy movements and plan strategic responses, especially in complex environments like the Mekong Delta.

The Tet Offensive was a pivotal moment for the SEALs, demonstrating their ability to engage in frontline combat in conjunction with conventional ground forces, solidifying their reputation for future operations on land.

Throughout the following year, as recounted by Milligan, SEAL teams commenced their planned rotations to Detachment locations. Once deployed, they realized that the reality of the combat zone was quite different from what their training had prepared them for. The initial team, under the command of Lieutenant James Barnes and operating in the Rung Sat Special Zone, returned after six months with a reputation for apathy and unruliness that almost convinced their superiors to forsake the concept of SEALs engaging in offensive combat missions. Under the command of Maynard Weyers, the unit achieved slightly better results, albeit they were still somewhat modest. In Vietnam, the SEALs quickly realized that their primary obstacle was not the enemy's strategic maneuvers but rather the lack of suitable targets, which became even more problematic as the adversary retreated from the river's edge whenever an American patrol neared. In order to demonstrate their worth and extend their scope of operations beyond the confines of the riverbanks, the SEALs found it necessary to devise their own target identification system, ensuring they could operate independently without relying on information from other units and avoiding any accusations of encroaching on areas usually overseen by the Army. Naval strategists sought to accomplish their objective by leveraging the latest intelligence resource of the United States military, which included defectors from the Viet Cong, and by simultaneously embracing the often-neglected yet crucial tactics of unconventional warfare.

Context

• The Tet Offensive highlighted the need for specialized units like the SEALs to engage directly with enemy forces, demonstrating their capability to operate alongside conventional military units in high-intensity combat situations.
• The Tet Offensive was a major campaign during the Vietnam War, launched by the North Vietnamese and Viet Cong forces in 1968. It was a series of surprise attacks against military and civilian commands and control centers throughout South Vietnam.
• Rotations to detachment locations are part of a strategic deployment plan, allowing SEAL teams to gain experience in different environments and maintain a continuous presence in key operational areas.
• The psychological stress of real combat, including the constant threat of ambush and the moral complexities of guerrilla warfare, can be more intense than what is simulated in training exercises.
• Lieutenant James Barnes, as a leader, would have been responsible for maintaining unit cohesion and effectiveness. The issues faced by his team might reflect broader challenges in leadership adaptation to the unconventional warfare environment of Vietnam.
• This area was a dense mangrove swamp in Vietnam, strategically important due to its proximity to Saigon and the shipping lanes. It was a challenging environment for military operations due to its difficult terrain and the presence of Viet Cong forces.
• Reliable intelligence was hard to come by, as the Viet Cong were adept at avoiding detection and often operated in small, mobile units.
• The Viet Cong's use of guerrilla tactics required SEALs to adapt their target identification methods to account for the enemy's ability to blend into civilian populations and use the terrain to their advantage.
• The SEALs were relatively new at the time, having been established in 1962. Their role and capabilities were still being defined, and they needed to prove their effectiveness without overstepping into traditional Army roles, which were more established and recognized.
• The use of advanced technology, such as aerial reconnaissance and electronic surveillance, complemented human intelligence efforts, providing a more comprehensive picture of the battlefield.
• Unconventional warfare involves tactics that are not part of traditional military operations, such as guerrilla warfare, sabotage, and subversion. These methods are often used to support resistance movements or insurgencies.

The 7th Platoon's success in developing a self-sustaining operational cycle of capture/kill was based on the use of local Vietnamese informants and intelligence assets, as well as the strategic targeting of key Viet Cong figures, leading to numerous operations across the nation that showcased these methods' efficiency to other SEAL teams in IV Corps and to the command of the Army's 9th Infantry Division. The Navy's Task Force 116

As 1967 was drawing to a close, the story transitions to a detailed account of how the 7th Platoon from SEAL Team TWO was sent to My Tho. The operation commenced with the 7th Platoon turning their attention to readying their gear, carrying out drills, and conducting preliminary scouting, under the guidance of the seasoned and empathetic Lieutenant Pete Peterson, with his destroyer experience, and Chief Robert "Eagle" Gallagher, who contributed extensive SEAL knowledge. This early phase included the usual difficulties of moving across waterlogged terrain, fending off mosquitoes, and coping with the Rung Sat's stifling humidity, yet it was free from any major conflicts. Chief Gallagher enlisted the assistance of Minh, a congenial former Vietnamese sailor proficient in two languages, enabling them to establish unique methods for intelligence collection and to commence a sequence of operations that were typical of SEAL team endeavors in the field. Minh's addition to the squad significantly improved the SEALs' operational effectiveness, equipping them with the ability to discern the enemy's elusive traces and to establish engagement with them.

Context

• In counterinsurgency operations, local informants are crucial as they provide insights into enemy movements, local geography, and cultural nuances that outsiders might miss. Their knowledge can significantly enhance the effectiveness of military operations by offering real-time intelligence.
• Successfully neutralizing key figures could lead to a temporary power vacuum, causing confusion and disorganization within Viet Cong units, which could be exploited by U.S. and allied forces.
• The success of small, agile units like the 7th Platoon influenced broader military strategies by demonstrating the effectiveness of targeted operations over large-scale conventional warfare, which was often less effective in the dense jungles and complex terrain of Vietnam.
• Known as the "Brown Water Navy," this task force was responsible for riverine operations in Vietnam, using patrol boats to control the waterways and support ground operations against the Viet Cong.
• Drills are essential for maintaining readiness and ensuring that team members can execute their roles seamlessly. They simulate real-world scenarios to enhance coordination and response times.
• The involvement of local informants and the need for language skills underscore the importance of cultural intelligence in Vietnam, a factor that leaders like Peterson and Gallagher would have had to navigate carefully to build trust and gather reliable intelligence.
• The region's tropical climate includes a monsoon season, leading to frequent flooding and waterlogged conditions, which complicate movement and logistics for military operations.
• Minh's ability to identify and interpret subtle signs of enemy activity would have been critical in planning effective capture/kill missions, reducing the risk of ambushes or failed operations.
• Understanding local customs and social structures can help in identifying potential informants and assessing the reliability of the information they provide.