PDF Summary:American Midnight, by Adam Hochschild

With the United States' entry into World War I, individual civil liberties rapidly deteriorated. In American Midnight, Adam Hochschild reveals the government's sweeping suppression of dissent—from imprisoning conscientious objectors and activists like Emma Goldman to aggressively monitoring left-leaning groups and immigrants. Hochschild shows how the era of the Red Scare enabled vigilante action against anyone deemed unpatriotic, exacerbated racial tensions, and planted the seeds for future abuses of government power and surveillance.

The postwar Communist scare unleashed a repressive campaign of raids, intimidation, and deportations against radicals, labor unions, and immigrants. Though portrayed as defending democracy, these government actions contradicted core American values. And Hochschild argues they laid the groundwork for troubling patterns—defying legal rights, scapegoating minorities—that resurfaced in subsequent periods of crisis.

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The demographic shift, particularly in the North where the Black population was significantly increasing, was seen by White Americans as a threat to their economic and social supremacy. Numerous residents' worries were reflected in the local newspaper's depiction of the newcomers as people likely to stir up trouble, commit crimes, and potentially provoke rebellion. Numerous influential Democrats associated this migration with an alleged scheme by Republicans to weaken the Democratic vote in major cities. Hochschild illustrates that such incendiary assertions, frequently lacking factual backing, served as a pretext for violent acts and harsh police treatment of Black Americans, with the government typically making negligible attempts to probe into these incidents or hold the culprits accountable.

The mistreatment of African American veterans underscored the contradiction of promoting democracy overseas while rejecting it within the nation's borders.

Hochschild underscores the particularly distressing nature of the resurgent racial animosity, which was evident in the way African American veterans became the focus of attacks from the mobs. After coming back from a battle fought to uphold democratic values around the world, these veterans discovered that their efforts had scarcely protected them from the terrors and racial hostility they encountered upon their return.

The country's hypocrisy was glaringly obvious as it praised soldiers for defending democracy in European conflicts while simultaneously allowing, and occasionally supporting, the erosion of essential freedoms and protections for its African American population at home. Hochschild depicts the deep-seated inequality that underscored the enduring racial bias ingrained in American society's foundation, as well as the enduring consequences of a conflict that ended slavery but failed to achieve racial parity.

Context

• The Red Scare era in the United States was marked by intense fear and suspicion of leftist ideologies, particularly communism. It led to mass persecution, scapegoating, and the targeting of individuals with perceived connections to leftist beliefs. The First Red Scare followed the Russian Revolution of 1917, while the Second Red Scare occurred after World War II, focusing on the infiltration of communism into American society and government.
• The Bolshevik Revolution, also known as the October Revolution, was a pivotal event in Russian history in 1917. Led by the Bolshevik Party and Vladimir Lenin, it overthrew the provisional government and established a socialist regime. This revolution marked the beginning of the Soviet era in Russia and led to the Russian Civil War. The Bolsheviks' rise to power fundamentally reshaped the political landscape of Russia and had far-reaching consequences for the country and the world.
• Labor turmoil typically refers to periods of intense conflict and unrest within the workforce, often characterized by strikes, protests, and disputes between laborers and employers over working conditions, wages, and other labor-related issues. During such times, tensions can escalate due to disagreements on various aspects of employment, leading to disruptions in productivity and stability within industries. These conflicts can involve a range of actors, including labor unions, government entities, business leaders, and workers themselves, each with their own interests and objectives. The outcomes of labor turmoil can have significant impacts on societal dynamics, economic policies, and the overall well-being of workers and industries involved.
• Subversive individuals are those perceived to be working against established authority or societal norms. They are often seen as posing a threat to the existing order through their actions or beliefs. The term is commonly used to describe people engaged in activities deemed subversive or rebellious by those in power. Subversive individuals may challenge the status quo through various means, such as advocating for radical change or undermining established institutions.
• The Industrial Workers of the World (IWW) was a radical labor union founded in 1905 in the United States. It aimed to unite all workers, regardless of skill or trade, under the belief that they should collectively control their workplaces. The IWW, also known as the Wobblies, advocated for direct action and industrial sabotage as tools for achieving social change. The union faced significant opposition from government and business interests during the early 20th century, leading to its decline in influence by the late 1920s.
• Martial law is the imposition of military control over civilian authorities, suspending normal legal processes and civil liberties. It is typically declared during times of war, civil unrest, natural disasters, or military coups. Martial law allows the military to take over governance temporarily, often to restore order or address emergencies. It involves the temporary replacement of civilian rule with military authority.
• The Great Migration was a significant movement of African Americans from the rural South to urban areas in the North and West of the United States between 1916 and 1970. This migration was driven by factors such as seeking better economic opportunities, escaping racial segregation and violence, and participating in the industrial workforce during and after World War I. It had a profound impact on the demographics, culture, and social dynamics of both the Southern and Northern regions of the United States. The Great Migration played a crucial role in shaping the urban landscape, contributing to the growth of African American communities and influencing the development of the civil rights movement.
• The voting patterns in Northern states during the period discussed were influenced by demographic shifts, particularly the Great Migration of Black Americans from the South. White Americans viewed this migration as a threat to their economic and social dominance, leading to anxieties about potential changes in voting demographics. Influential Democrats associated the migration with a Republican strategy to weaken the Democratic vote in major cities. This perception fueled racial tensions and influenced political dynamics in Northern states.

The government's heightened scrutiny led to a rise in political actions aimed at removing certain individuals.

During the era of the First World War, the government ramped up its monitoring activities, driven by the widespread dread of external and domestic adversaries, a direct result of the international hostilities that occurred at that time. Hochschild documents the pivotal change when, starting in 1917, the attention of this emerging system shifted from foreign foes to the vigilant observation of United States citizens.

He investigates the origins of the current pervasive government surveillance system, identifying its roots in an era characterized by the creation of influential intelligence agencies that included entities from the armed forces as well as civilian sectors, and the growth of a vast vigilante network that often served as an informal adjunct to official authority. The nation's viewpoint on individual privacy, freedom of speech, and the tolerance of political dissent was permanently shaped by a combination of official and unofficial surveillance.

In an era marked by a growing apprehension about the sway of communism and the turmoil brought on by conflicts, there was a notable escalation in the surveillance activities conducted by the government.

The turmoil stemming from the worldwide strife of 1914-1918, along with the disturbances in Russia, led to heightened surveillance by the government, as illustrated by Hochschild. Hochschild portrays a government that, during Wilson's tenure, became progressively more distrustful, enthusiastically embracing methods of espionage and infiltration to quell potential dangers and strengthen its hold on power.

Hochschild emphasizes the departure from America's heritage of personal liberty and limited government, marking the beginning of a troubling period in the relationship between the state and the people it governs.

The establishment of Military Intelligence by Ralph Van Deman was primarily focused on surveillance of domestic dissenters.

Hochschild recounts how, with the United States' entry into the conflict, the army swiftly set up a domestic Military Intelligence division tasked with monitoring and regulating the actions of residents within America. It functioned as a powerful tool, focusing on monitoring and undermining the activities of labor advocates, peace groups, and other associations deemed deficient in patriotic allegiance.

Van Deman, who had a military career and was responsible for collecting intelligence on Filipino opposition to American rule, established and led the intelligence agency. He and his rapidly expanding agency, employing tactics such as wiretapping, confidential informants, private documentation, and comprehensive raids, meticulously monitored a diverse group of people, ranging from suspected German spies to individuals associated with socialism, editors of African American publications, pacifist clergy, and female members of an organization frowned upon by Van Deman, the Conference of Christian Pacifists.

The establishment of the American Protective League allowed ordinary citizens to participate collectively in surveillance and enforcement efforts, working alongside the Department of Justice.

The struggle provided a perfect opportunity for members of certain social echelons and collectives to participate in safeguarding the nation without enlisting in the armed forces. Adam Hochschild recounts the remarkable story of the American Protective League's formation, where volunteers took it upon themselves to act as unofficial law enforcement agents.

Its organizers, depicted by Hochschild with a blend of doubt and humor, held certificates confirming that their organization functioned with the endorsement and sanction of the United States Department of Justice. The federal government provided members with unique silver badges, each inscribed with the phrase "Secret Service." During that period, it was increasingly clear that those with authority could occasionally act with impunity, ignoring established legal limits.

Following the conflict, efforts were initiated to confront what were seen as emerging radical threats.

The pervasive sense of fear and suspicion, commonly known as the Red Scare, went further than just monitoring and detaining people for what they said or wrote. The phenomenon started to encompass various types of raids. The initial wave of attacks in September 1917 focused on the homes and workplaces of IWW members nationwide. Encouraged by its early victories, the government quickly intensified its actions, focusing on people linked to a range of leftist beliefs in the following years.

The investigations revealed a substantial departure from the nation's commitment to legal principles. During these incursions, constitutional protections like observing the search warrant or having an attorney present during interrogations were often ignored. The media, at this juncture unquestioning, disseminated the authorities' claims in extensive detail, foregoing efforts to confirm their accuracy.

J. Edgar Hoover orchestrated the Palmer Raids, resulting in numerous arrests and expulsions, particularly targeting organizations like the Union of Russian Workers.

Adam Hochschild portrays a youthful J. Edgar Hoover, who had just taken the helm of the division within the Justice Department tasked with overseeing radical organizations, as the key figure orchestrating the extensive suppression campaign referred to as the Palmer Raids. The writer depicts Hoover as someone who, much like A. Mitchell Palmer, displayed scant respect for moral standards and leveraged his role for his own benefit. He aimed for more than just holding a position within the government's leadership. His objective was to secure the nation's highest office, which required him to outshine his rivals, maintain the fervor of anti-communist sentiment, and show voters his unwavering ability to make firm decisions. He orchestrated the pivotal assaults that were central to that strategy.

The operations, as depicted by Hochschild, were superficially conducted to capture individuals linked to the anarchist events of June 1919, yet it seemed the genuine aim was to secure political advantage rather than to conclude the active inquiries. Hoover and Palmer concentrated their efforts on individuals who appeared to have non-American names and were inclined towards leftist ideologies, including organizations such as the association of Russian workers. In conducting these operations, they sought to both portray themselves as protectors of the United States from a supposed Communist uprising and to fulfill their goal of deporting the non-citizens they held responsible for any political unrest.

The individuals were detained and maligned with questionable accusations and false evidence, all justified as necessary raids.

Hochschild underscores that the Palmer Raids were often rationalized through questionable claims and, at times, evidence that was concocted. Hoover told reporters that the locations associated with the organizations being scrutinized were allegedly filled with symbols of rebellion and various weapons; yet, despite frequent repetition by the press, this assertion was mostly baseless. Hoover revealed to the New York Tribune that the Department of Justice agents, in collaboration with detectives, discovered a concealed chamber in the premises of the Russian Workers' Union, which was storing concealed explosives, various chemicals, and deadly devices. Regrettably, such lethal contraptions were never created. Were they, perhaps, planted, moved, or imagined?

Hochschild shows how Hoover strategically used the media to present the raids as preventing a nationwide Communist uprising, despite the lack of evidence that such an upheaval was ever a real possibility. Media titles and official announcements frequently echoed unfounded assertions, fostering the belief that a radical overthrow was imminent, thereby portraying the government's actions to suppress these disturbances as both justified and necessary.

Practical Tips

• You can enhance your understanding of historical surveillance by creating a timeline of events that mirror the ones you've learned about, using current news articles and government releases. By comparing past government actions with present-day events, you'll develop a keener sense of patterns in governmental behavior and public reaction. For example, if you read about increased surveillance during a past war, look for similar patterns in today's international conflicts and how governments respond to perceived threats.
• Start a digital privacy awareness campaign on social media to educate your network about the importance of protecting personal information. Use infographics and short videos to illustrate how surveillance has evolved and the impact it can have on individual freedoms. This could involve tips on using encrypted messaging apps or understanding privacy settings on social platforms, drawing parallels to historical events where surveillance led to negative outcomes for individuals.
• Engage in role-playing exercises with friends or family where one person acts as a government official and others as citizens with varying viewpoints. This activity will help you explore the dynamics of power, surveillance, and the potential for abuse. Through these simulations, you can discuss and reflect on how individuals might have felt during historical surveillance periods and how to advocate for balanced policies that protect both national security and personal freedoms today.

The lasting political and social impact of this turbulent period

The era following the First World War, characterized by uncontrolled inflation, devastating labor strikes, and intense racial strife, has left an indelible mark on American society through the implementation of stringent measures. Hochschild illustrates how the era significantly impacted numerous progressive initiatives, intensifying societal splits along racial and economic lines, and resulting in a legacy characterized by expanded governmental authority and a more limited spectrum of permissible political conversation.

Hochschild also draws parallels between the period in question and subsequent European events. The persistent blockade targeting Germany, he argues, sowed seeds of resentment that ultimately cultivated the emergence of fascism.

The momentum of progressive movements started to wane, as did the robustness of the labor movement.

Hochschild argues that the stifling environment prevalent throughout the time of strife, along with the deep-seated dread of communism, significantly hindered the progress and efforts of labor unions. The widespread jailing of activists, coupled with the aggressive quelling of workers' demonstrations, plunged these organizations into chaos and despair, delaying the achievement of achievable goals such as the implementation of child labor laws, the establishment of universal healthcare, and the improvement of welfare programs.

The enduring impact of the Red Scare on the labor movement was notably paradoxical. The United States entered World War I in 1917, framing its involvement as a pledge to protect democratic values worldwide. Democratic values across America experienced a significant decline in stability.

The severe reduction in the strength of the Industrial Workers of the World greatly diminished their influence on the development of future socioeconomic strategies.

During the two decades before World War I, the influence and numbers of both the moderate Socialist Party and the more radical Industrial Workers of the World grew, as Hochschild illustrates. They combined European-inspired class-conscious radicalism with the American values of free speech and resistance to deep-rooted inequalities, gaining more support.

The author argues that the substantial imprisonment of their leaders, coupled with the stifling of their media by both legal and illegal means, and the ensuing climate of fear, greatly weakened the influence and lasting presence of both groups. Despite potential economic incentives to align with a particular faction, a pervasive sense of fear deterred numerous Americans from taking that leap.

The lasting damage to union movements delayed the creation of a stronger social support network and the introduction of universal health coverage across America.

Hochschild argues that the intense crackdown on labor movements during this time had consequences that went far beyond the weakening of the Socialist Party and the Industrial Workers of the World. As the 1910s drew to a close, the collective strength of American workers had escalated to such a level that they could advocate for reforms across the country.

The fervent opposition to communism during this period greatly hindered the progress and sway of the labor movement, leading to numerous detentions and deportations. For years to come it would prove much harder for any union to make demands for better wages or working conditions, for its leaders could now easily be condemned as communists and be jailed, attacked by vigilantes, deported, or all three.

The conflict resulted in feelings of disillusionment and the failure to establish lasting peace.

The most heartbreaking aspect of this narrative is that the conflict, which was portrayed as a defense of democratic principles, not only eroded the very foundations of democracy within the nation but also failed to cultivate a world that was more peaceful and equitable. Adam Hochschild emphasized the growing doubt about the grand claims of the war's aims and its ability to achieve lasting peace, feelings that emerged from events that took place during the conflict and the outcomes that followed.

The resurgence of extreme violence among different political groups led many Americans to scrutinize the official account of the conflict and to carefully evaluate the intentions of those at the helm of the nation's course towards the conflict.

The public became more cognizant of the economic motivations behind the strife and the individuals who were reaping financial benefits from it.

Following the war, the widening disparity between the affluent and the impoverished was underscored by a nationwide increase in labor conflicts, which amplified awareness of the hypocrisy of those who had profited during the conflict while urging others to shoulder the majority of sacrifices. As it became known that military contracts were associated with excessive expenses and executives received significant bonuses, politicians, along with the media, who had first criticized radicals for pointing out these issues, struggled more and more to ignore the reality.

The government's inaction in probing or restraining firms that leveraged their wartime control of prices to accumulate significant earnings was just as troubling, particularly in light of its earlier stringent measures against the IWW. Hochschild demonstrates how this imbalance led to growing doubts about the true intentions behind the war and an increasing distrust of those who claimed to be patriotic but benefited at the expense of their compatriots.

The stringent conditions of the peace treaty contributed to the resentment that later ignited the rise of fascism in Europe.

The agreement forged in the aftermath of the hostilities failed to secure lasting tranquility. The creation of a global forum intended for the peaceful discussion and settlement of disputes was realized, yet a weary and ailing Wilson yielded to the insistence by the British and French on punitive measures. The treaty imposed strict conditions that required Germany to cede substantial territories and to pay substantial reparations.

The continuation of the Allied blockade against Germany even after the armistice was declared greatly exacerbated the resentment among Germans due to the resulting critical shortage of food and vital supplies, which led to extensive hunger and loss of life. The evidence provided by Hochschild illustrates how the harsh penalties inflicted led to a sense of disenchantment and resentment within Germany, ultimately creating an environment conducive to the emergence of fascism.

The enduring impact of political suppression and its reverberations through subsequent decades.

Hochschild argues that the reduction of the most blatant forms of suppression, which continued beyond 1921 following the period marked by World War I and the subsequent Red Scare, laid the groundwork for similar trends in later times, indicating that these occurrences were not merely anomalies in history but a troubling indication of the possible abuse of American power.

The author contends that by suppressing opposition, restricting civil freedoms, and labeling progressive thinkers as dangers to the nation's safety, these tactics would persist in influencing political dialogue and measures for the foreseeable future.

The creation of a domestic surveillance system and the tactic of pinpointing political foes laid the groundwork for subsequent organizations, such as the FBI when it was led by J. Edgar Hoover, to adopt similar strategies.

In the era of the First World War, Hochschild depicts the establishment of a durable system for domestic surveillance, which was intensified by the Red Scare. J. Edgar Hoover became infamous for his extensive surveillance and efforts to infiltrate and disrupt progressive groups, in addition to orchestrating the Palmer Raids and overseeing the FBI for an extended period.

The surveillance capabilities of this mechanism were enhanced to permit secret eavesdropping and recording, surpassing the methods employed over a hundred years earlier to track down draft dodgers, peace activists, and Industrial Workers of the World affiliates. The pervasive fear of communist infiltration during the Cold War led to a deeper sense of national disquiet than the previous era of acute anti-communist sentiment, leading to additional purges during McCarthyism that disrupted the lives of numerous individuals and significantly shook the political terrain of America.

The resurgence of similar trends in later periods of national anxiety, revealing the enduring appeal of finding scapegoats during times of crisis

The author argues that the United States has a troubling tendency to abandon its commitment to legal principles, silence dissent, and label certain groups as outsiders when faced with national emergencies.

Hochschild argues that the inclination to pursue simple solutions for complex problems, to ascribe anxieties to outside influences, and to overlook inconvenient truths has been a constant throughout history. Throughout history, periods of crisis have often led to the suppression of civil freedoms, driven by apprehension and bias towards individuals of foreign nationalities and varying ethnic backgrounds, as observed after the Cold War, following the 9/11 attacks, and in today's time of intense societal and political division. Hochschild underscores the necessity of recognizing these patterns to prevent the return of the dark forces that loomed over America from 1917 to 1921.

Other Perspectives

• The impact of the First World War on American society could also be seen as a catalyst for positive change, leading to reforms in the 1920s and the eventual establishment of the New Deal in the 1930s.
• Some historians argue that societal splits along racial and economic lines were already deeply entrenched in American society and that the post-war era merely exposed rather than intensified these divisions.
• The expansion of governmental authority in the post-war period can be viewed as a necessary response to unprecedented national security concerns, rather than an unwarranted overreach.
• The emergence of fascism in Europe is a complex phenomenon that cannot be solely attributed to the blockade against Germany; other factors, such as the Treaty of Versailles, economic conditions, and internal political dynamics, also played significant roles.
• The decline of progressive movements and labor unions in the post-war period might also be attributed to internal weaknesses, strategic errors, and a failure to adapt to changing political and economic circumstances.
• The Red Scare's impact on the labor movement could be interpreted as a reflection of broader societal fears and not just government suppression, indicating a more complex interplay between public opinion and policy.
• The strength and influence of the Industrial Workers of the World and similar organizations may have been overstated, and their decline could be due to a variety of factors, including internal discord and competition with other labor groups.
• The delay in creating a stronger social support network and universal health coverage in the U.S. might also be attributed to the country's unique political culture, which traditionally emphasizes individualism and private enterprise over state intervention.
• The disillusionment following the war and the failure to establish lasting peace could be seen as part of a historical pattern of post-war realities falling short of wartime idealism, rather than a unique outcome of this particular conflict.
• Public awareness of economic motivations behind the war could be considered a normal part of the democratic process, where scrutiny of government actions is expected and can lead to more informed policy debates.
• The harsh conditions of the peace treaty and their role in the rise of fascism in Europe are debated among historians, with some suggesting that a variety of factors, including the actions of the Weimar Republic and the Great Depression, were more influential.
• The political suppression and surveillance during the post-war period can be seen as an overcorrection in a time of perceived existential threat, which was later rectified through legislative and judicial actions.
• The creation of domestic surveillance systems and tactics used by organizations like the FBI can be argued as having played a role in maintaining national security during periods of genuine threat, such as the Cold War.
• The resurgence of scapegoating in times of crisis could be interpreted as a natural, though regrettable, human response to fear and uncertainty, which is not unique to the United States and has been addressed through civil rights legislation and judicial oversight.