PDF Summary:You Are Not So Smart, by David McRaney

Do you sometimes feel like it’s you against the world—that you’re more complex, intelligent, and capable than most people? In You Are Not So Smart, David McRaney explains that most people hold these beliefs due to lies our brains tell us. McRaney argues that we overestimate our abilities, logic, and importance, and that these thought errors cause us to miss out on opportunities and make poor decisions. However, by being aware of them, you can overcome them and improve your judgment.

In this guide, we’ll discuss four truths McRaney shares about how we think: First, we mostly make up our own meanings and reasons behind things. Second, our brains’ “default functions” (like memory) aren’t very reliable. Third, our moral compass is weak. Finally, we overestimate our abilities while underestimating others’. In each section, we’ll explain why we fail to grasp these truths, the negative consequences, and how to overcome faulty thinking. Our commentary explores some psychological theories that underlie McRaney’s truths and alternative methods to manage and overcome thought errors.

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Don’t Avoid Heuristics Entirely

Experts add that the key to making more reliable decisions isn’t necessarily avoiding heuristics completely, but understanding the brain’s two thought systems. System 1 uses heuristics to handle subconscious, everyday decisions quickly and automatically; as such, it’s error-prone. System 2 uses slow, conscious, effortful thought to solve complex problems and make more reliable decisions.

While McRaney’s suggestion seems to emphasize System 2, this won’t necessarily produce the best decisions. Instead, experts recommend using a combination of System 1 and 2 thinking—listen to your instinctive judgments (heuristic decisions based on System 1), but evaluate them using System 2 thinking. For example, you’re told to make a last-minute speech at an event—your System 1 thinking tells you to leave immediately to avoid it because you’re unprepared. However, you can make better decisions while still avoiding the speech by incorporating your System 2 thinking—instead of running away, you can do something more rational like ask someone to fill in for you.

Inaccurate Memories

McRaney explains that our memories are often inaccurate because they’re slightly different each time we recall them. This psychological phenomenon, called the misinformation effect, occurs because, rather than existing in an unchanging state in our mind, memories are reconstructed from scratch each time we recall them. This means that we might forget or alter certain aspects each time we recall a memory as we’re influenced by new experiences and knowledge. For example, you’re rehashing last week’s meeting with a coworker and they mention that the boss looked annoyed—you didn’t notice this, but since your coworker mentioned it, it becomes part of your memory.

This thought error suggests that your testimonies and those of others aren’t always reliable. As a result, you may inadvertently believe or spread misinformation. To overcome this, McRaney suggests using your knowledge of this error to be more skeptical about your memories and to more critically analyze them for inaccuracies and inconsistencies.

Gaslighting: The Dangers of the Misinformation Effect

McRaney explains that the misinformation effect occurs when our memories change slightly over time due to the introduction of new information. One prime example of how this phenomenon can harm you, beyond memories and testimonies being unreliable, is gaslighting. Gaslighting occurs when, over time, an abuser intentionally tries to change your memories and perceptions of reality by taking advantage of the misinformation effect. For example, they may question your memories—“You’re the one who started that fight, remember?” Or, they might lie, saying something happened when it didn’t or vice versa—“I never said I’d take you out to dinner tonight; I just said we could go on a date sometime.”

While McRaney’s advice to analyze your memories for inconsistencies can be helpful in minimizing the misinformation effect, it doesn’t necessarily prevent you from being manipulated by others. In addition to McRaney’s advice, you can look for the following signs that may indicate that you’re being gaslit: You’re constantly second-guessing yourself, someone else tells you your memory is wrong without considering the accuracy of your perspective, or someone changes the events of a story you’re certain of and refuses to consider their error.

Truth #3: You’re Not as Good as You Think, Especially When Others Are Involved

The third truth McRaney uncovers is that we aren’t as honorable as we believe ourselves to be—especially under the pressure and influence of others. In the following sections, we’ll discuss how this truth plays out in human behavior.

Thought Error: Your Motivation to Do Good Diminishes in the Presence of Others

McRaney explains that despite wanting to do good, we’re less motivated to do so when we’re around others. This can be seen in psychological phenomena like the bystander effect, where the more people are involved in the situation, the less motivated we are to act, and social loafing, where the more people are involved in a task, the more we slack off. These phenomena occur for two reasons: First, the more people there are in a setting, the more we lose personal accountability and rely on others to act. Second, we’re shy—we don’t want to act in front of the group and garner attention.

For example, if 10 people are working together to clean a space, you likely won’t work as fast or as hard because you know there are others to pick up the slack. Likewise, if there’s a tree branch on the road and there’s a line of cars behind you, you’re unlikely to get out and move the obstruction—you don’t want to be a spectacle, and you tell yourself there are others to deal with it.

(Shortform note: Both the bystander effect and social loafing result from a phenomenon called diffusion of responsibility, where the bigger a group is, the less responsibility and motivation to act each person feels. Research shows that there’s an exception to this rule if an individual feels that others in the group are unable to help. For example, if you’re on a plane with 100 passengers and someone is having a seizure, you’re unlikely to help unless you’re a doctor with expertise others lack.)

According to McRaney, the consequences of this thought error can be dire—not only does it decrease productivity, but it can lead to dangerous and even fatal outcomes. For example, if no one moves the tree branch, a car could hit it and get into a dangerous accident. McRaney says that to overcome the bystander effect, you should increase your self-awareness—if you’re stalling because others are around, recognize this behavior and push yourself to act instead. To avoid slacking off during group work, he recommends setting personal goals you’ll feel accountable to meet.

(Shortform note: McRaney offers advice that helps combat the bystander effect and social loafing after you notice them. However, there may be a way to prevent the diffusion of responsibility, the underlying cause of these thought errors—by adopting the Buddhist doctrine of dependent origin, or pratītyasamutpāda. This doctrine states that everything is interconnected, so someone else’s problem is also your problem. By adopting this mindset, you’ll be less likely to shrug off responsibility as someone else’s because you believe you’re directly involved and thus inherently responsible to help.)

Thought Error 2: Your Crave Conformity

Next, McRaney explains that we like to believe we’re strong and make autonomous decisions, but our desire to fit in usually trumps the desire to be authentic and do the right thing. McRaney explains that this is because of our human instinct for security—when we fit in with others, we feel safe. This can be seen in psychological phenomena like conformity, where we change our beliefs to fit into a group, and groupthink, where we reach consensus in a group without critical thought to avoid disagreements. For example, you’re less likely to voice disagreement in a group setting, more likely to conform to the wishes of a superior, and naturally prone to join groups like cliques or even cults.

Social Identity Theory and the Need for Conformity

An alternative explanation for why we have the desire to fit in can be seen in social identity theory. The theory posits that we crave conformity and group membership not necessarily for safety reasons, but to help shape our identity and self-worth.

This happens through three processes. First, in social categorization, we categorize our identity based on group affiliation—for example, you’re a “jock” because you’re part of the football team. Second, in social comparison, we determine our status based on the status of our group compared to others—the jocks are cooler than the nerds or the drama kids, so you have high status. Third, in social identification, we see ourselves as members of the group rather than individuals—thus we adopt the group norms, beliefs, behaviors, and so on.

McRaney says that these behaviors harm not only yourself but also the collective. Feeling unable to voice your opinions stifles creative thought and could prevent a better idea from coming to light. Failing to question authority could trap people within flawed systems. And your willingness to join a group and share an identity could cause you to lose your sense of personal identity and judgment. To avoid falling prey to this phenomenon, McRaney recommends practicing self-awareness and critical thinking—stay aware of your true thoughts and values (without the influence of others), question authority and group consensus, and don’t be afraid to speak your mind.

Embracing Authenticity

In Dare to Lead, Brené Brown reiterates the pitfalls of conformity and lack of authenticity, explaining that these consequences can be especially harmful in the workplace. For example, a lack of authenticity and clear values demonstrated by leaders can result in poor innovation, low employee satisfaction, high turnover, and more.

Further, Brown provides some actions to help you express and uphold your true thoughts and values, as McRaney suggests. First, Brown says you must identify your values by narrowing down what’s important to you and selecting the two most important components that you want to guide your actions and decisions—trying to live by more than two core values will often produce conflict of interest.

Next, live by these values. Double-check your success by identifying behaviors that align with and contradict them and examples of times when you were especially living your values. This will make it easier for you to follow McRaney’s advice and stay aware of your values without external influence, analyze whether something aligns with your priorities, and speak up when necessary.

Truth #4: You Overestimate Yourself and Underestimate Others

The fourth truth McRaney shares is that our brains tend to overestimate our competence and importance while underestimating and oversimplifying others’. In other words, we think we’re better at things than we are, place ourselves at the center of situations that aren't about us, and see ourselves as complex and nuanced individuals while denying others these considerations. In the following sections, we’ll discuss how related thought errors play out in real life.

Thought Error 1: You Believe Your Judgments Are Rational

McRaney explains that we tend to think that our judgments are always rational and based on logic and that we’ll change our minds when new evidence presents itself; however, we tend to form beliefs without much critical thought and cling to those beliefs without ever questioning their validity. This can be seen in psychological phenomena like confirmation bias, where we seek out and interpret new information to support our beliefs, and brand loyalty, where we remain loyal to certain brands out of familiarity rather than practicality.

For example, you notice the commercial saying your preferred brand has the cleanest water, but ignore the article about how it has an acidic pH that’s bad for you. Further, you continue buying this brand even when there are cheaper options—not because it’s better, but because you have an emotional attachment to it—especially if you’ve spent a significant amount of money on it.

(Shortform note: It’s important to understand these phenomena as weaknesses because entities like marketing agencies often use them against you. Brands often utilize confirmation bias to get you attached to their product and brand loyalty to keep you attached. For example, some brands use stereotypes in their ads that will make you think they’re higher quality than they are—a shampoo that says “made in Morocco” seems better than one made in the US because we think foreign products are fancier. This takes advantage of confirmation bias. Then, once you're loyal to the brand based on its perceived high quality, they can lower the quality and increase the price so that you’re paying more and they’re paying less.)

This phenomenon is detrimental because it can lead you to defend invalid points, get into silly arguments, and maintain unproductive habits and beliefs—for example, you could save hundreds of dollars a year by getting store-brand water instead of your preferred brand. To overcome this thought error, McRaney recommends regularly questioning your beliefs and habits and seeking out counterarguments so you can gain a well-rounded perspective before making judgments.

How to Identify and Overcome Faulty Judgments

In Thinking in Bets, Annie Duke provides more suggestions to help you identify which beliefs might be faulty due to confirmation bias. She recommends identifying the beliefs you should question by imagining that you have to place a bet on all your beliefs. Once money is at stake, you’re more likely to realize which of your beliefs may be faulty.

In Think Like a Rocket Scientist, Ozan Varol offers other advice on how to question your beliefs, as McRaney recommends. Aside from seeking out counterarguments, you should also test your beliefs under real-life conditions, and use more than one method of testing. For example, to test whether your brand of water bottle is the best, gather a few different brands from the store you normally buy from (ensuring the samples are collected under real-life conditions). Then, test the acidity of the water with two methods—pH test strips and litmus paper.

Thought Error 2: You Overestimate Your Intelligence and Skill Level

According to McRaney, we tend to overestimate our skill, intelligence, and success—and when we learn that we were wrong about something, we convince ourselves that we knew that information all along. This can be seen in psychological phenomena like hindsight bias, where we convince ourselves we knew new information all along, the Dunning-Kruger effect, where we overestimate our abilities in areas where we lack skill, and the self-serving bias, where we see ourselves in an overly positive light to boost our ego. For example, you think that a task will be easier to complete than it is, that you’ll score higher on an exam than you will, and that you were more successful in the past than you really were.

This kind of thought error happens for a few reasons. First, McRaney explains that overestimating ourselves is a natural human tendency. Further, we convince ourselves that we already know new information rather than admitting we were wrong because we crave consistency (we don’t want to change our mental framework by admitting we were wrong) and want to maintain a high self-esteem. This also explains why we judge our past to be more successful than it actually was.

Social Comparison and the Exception to Our Tendency to Inflate Ourselves

Humans generally tend to overestimate themselves, but this isn’t universally true. Many people defy this tendency by regularly underestimating themselves, and this deviation can be explained through social comparison theory.

There are two types of social comparison—upward and downward. When comparing downward, you compare yourself to someone you think you’re better than, which makes it easy to overestimate your abilities as McRaney notes. However, if you compare upward to people who are more successful than you are, you’re likely to diverge from this rule and have low self-esteem. You may then doubt and underestimate yourself, believing you’re less capable and successful than others.

Researchers explain that whether these comparisons boost or diminish our egos depends on how much control we feel we have over our circumstances. For example, if we upwardly compare ourselves in an area we think we can improve in, it will motivate us to do better. If we upwardly compare ourselves but don’t feel we can improve, we’ll experience low self-esteem and self-doubt.

These phenomena are detrimental because they hinder your potential for growth and success—if you think you’re already good enough, there’s no room for improvement. To overcome this thought error, McRaney recommends adopting a mindset of constant growth where you can identify shortcomings and areas for improvement. Something you can do to help with this is compare yourself to experts—this will give you metrics to strive for.

(Shortform note: The authors of Make it Stick offer some additional advice you can follow to help you stop overestimating yourself and start improving. For example, don’t just compare yourself with experts— obtain mentorship and training from them. This helps you accurately gauge your skill level compared to theirs. You can also work alongside a team or partner so you have encouragement and an outside perspective of your progress.)

Thought Error 3: You Crave Importance

McRaney explains that instead of using logic, we often make assumptions and decisions based on our perceptions of self-importance. There are two ways we do this: First, we believe ourselves to be the center of attention. Second, we make decisions in order to protect our ego—our sense of self-importance.

We Think We’re The Center of Attention

McRaney explains that we have outsized views of our importance because of human nature—we’re the center of our own universe, so we believe ourselves to be more important to others than we actually are. This phenomenon is called the spotlight effect. For example, you’re likely to think those around will notice the small stain on your shirt or your bad mood. In reality, people are unlikely to notice you, let alone the stain or your mood—they’re focused on themselves, just like you’re focused on you.

(Shortform note: A 2016 study put forward a theory called the invisibility cloak illusion, which seems to contradict the spotlight effect. The study found that we underestimate how closely others pay attention to us, but we pay close attention to them. In other words, we think we’re invisible to others, but they actually notice many small details about us like the way we talk or smile, the color of our eyes, and so on. While this seems to contradict the spotlight effect, researchers explain that the two effects coincide—it’s true people are paying more attention to you than you think, but they’re not noticing the things you’re self-conscious about, like the stain on your shirt.)

According to McRaney, this self-centered thinking causes unnecessary stress about being judged and prevents you from paying attention to your environment. For example, you spend the night feeling bad about the stain that no one notices when you could be having fun. Likewise, your focus on the stain prevents you from noticing things like how happy your friends are to see you—something you should be grateful for. McRaney suggests that when you start to feel self-conscious about others’ opinions of you, remember that strangers are paying about as much attention to you as you are to them—you’re too busy thinking about yourself to think about them, and so are they.

(Shortform note: The spotlight effect is detrimental because it causes self-consciousness. As McRaney says, this can prevent you from being present; it can also cause mental health issues like social anxiety, self-isolation, and depression. Further, since this effect is occurring in the vacuum of your mind, it can be hard to break the cycle on your own. Therefore, if you still struggle to overcome the spotlight effect after following McRaney’s advice, try getting distance from your perspectives by asking others for help. Ask people you trust for feedback on how noticeable the aspects you’re concerned about are—they’ll be able to give you an accurate outside perspective.)

We Strive to Protect Our Ego

McRaney explains that our desire to protect our ego—our sense of self-importance—often causes us to make poor choices. We tend to base our decisions on how important the result will make us feel rather than practicality. This phenomenon is called the ultimatum game. For example, if you go to a new restaurant and your waiter offers you a voucher for a free drink upon your next visit, you’re happy and will return. If you’re a long-time customer and receive the same offer, you might see this as insulting—it’s not much compared to the amount of money you’ve spent there so you don’t return due to this perceived slight. Logically, a free drink is better than a drink at cost, but your sense of importance drives you to reject it.

(Shortform note: In The Power of Now, Eckhart Tolle explains that the part of our ego that causes us to get upset when we feel slighted is called the pain-body. The pain-body accumulates and feeds off negative emotions. So when you’re in a situation that triggers something painful—for example, hearing a passing comment from your parents that reminds you of how they made you feel like you were inferior to your brother—your pain-body might take control and cause you to be sullen or antagonistic, further feeding into and strengthening your pain-body. Tolle says this leads to a vicious cycle: The bigger your pain-body gets, the more negative emotions you’ll experience moving forward.)

McRaney explains that we engage in this thought error because it’s our nature to want to gain status—in tribal times, our survival hinged on our resources and status in the group. However, it’s detrimental in modern times because it causes us to miss out on opportunities. To overcome ego-serving thinking and make more practical decisions, McRaney suggests logically evaluating the pros and cons of your opportunities.

The Effects of Ego-Driven Behavior and How to Overcome Them

In A New Earth, Tolle explains that our desire to gain resources and superiority has even farther-reaching consequences than what McRaney discusses. On a larger scale, this desire results in greed, pollution, depletion of resources, violence, and polarization (like ideological war). On an individual level, it results in inauthentic relationships and recurring negative emotions.

The key to overcoming our ego-driven behavior and these effects, according to Tolle, is to detach from your pain-body and live in the present moment. For example, to detach from your pain-body (and follow McRaney’s advice to base decisions on logic), learn to identify when it’s controlling your emotions—when you get upset over things like a lack of respect or attention, recognize that these thoughts and emotions aren’t coming from you; they’re coming from your pain-body. Once you acknowledge that these feelings aren’t you, you can separate yourself from them.

Thought Error 4: You Doubt Others Unfairly

Finally, McRaney explains that despite overestimating ourselves, we underestimate others. This can be seen in psychological phenomena like the third person effect, where we see others as more gullible than us, the representativeness heuristic, where we make generalizations and character judgments based on simple facts we know about a person, and the fundamental attribution error, where we believe that a person’s actions fundamentally reflect their character although we tend to make excuses for our own actions that preserve our character.

McRaney explains that we fall prey to these thought errors because they’re mental shortcuts that allow us to make quick judgments and decisions that help us understand and navigate our world safely. For example, if someone yelled at you once, you assume they’re a mean person and avoid them to protect yourself. However, people are more complex than this. You can see this in yourself—raising your voice one day when you’re upset doesn’t mean you’re a cruel person.

(Shortform note: While these thought errors occur in everyone at a basic level, when taken to the extreme, they can be indicative of narcissistic personality disorder (NPD). People with NPD tend to have an unrealistically high sense of self-importance and superiority over others and often see others as less intelligent, capable, and complex than they are. This can cause issues in numerous areas of their life, especially relationships.)

These thought errors can be detrimental for numerous reasons. For example, they can lead to prejudice and make you underestimate and therefore deny opportunities to others. The misunderstandings you have as a result of these errors can also damage relationships. To avoid this, McRaney suggests refraining from making snap judgments about people—consider what you don’t know and what you need to learn to make an accurate judgment. Further, don’t censor people based on what you think they’re capable of; instead, give people the opportunity to make judgments and decisions based on their own rationale.

(Shortform note: These thought errors can be especially harmful at work—doubting and limiting employees prevents them and the company from reaching their full potential. Paul Marciano expresses this sentiment in Carrots and Sticks Don’t Work and provides a few tips to help you start trusting and empowering people more. For example, to empower people to do better rather than doubting their current abilities, regularly ask them how you can help them improve, for example with more training, resources, or information. Further, empower employees with autonomy and decision-making authority—when they know you trust them, they’ll rise to the occasion and behave effectively.)