PDF Summary:When, by Daniel H. Pink

In When, Daniel Pink argues that timing is everything. Drawing on his extensive research on the science of timing, Pink shows how our daily lives and experiences follow predictable patterns with three phases: a crest, a slump, and a recovery. He offers guidance on how we can use these patterns to be strategic about our time, from being more efficient at work to taking advantage of momentum at important turning points in our lives. When is a handbook for those who want to harness the natural rhythm of their day and their lives to work and live more intentionally.

Throughout the guide, we’ll expand on the science behind Pink’s recommendations, adding advice from other researchers in the fields of well-being and productivity, while also highlighting studies that challenge some of Pink’s assertions.

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For example, Pink points to research about school start times. Despite young people’s sleeping patterns shifting later in their teens, school hours have remained largely unaffected, with some high school classes beginning as early as 7 a.m. However, numerous studies have shown that later start times not only improve student motivation, well-being, and mental health, but also result in improved standardized test scores and graduation rates. This example shows how one small change in when the day starts can lead to dramatically different outcomes.

(Shortform note: While school start times across the US have remained largely unchanged due to conflicts with parents’ work schedules, some districts have experimented with delayed school days for their middle and high school students. For example, in 2019 the Kerman Unified School District in Fresno County, CA implemented an 8:30 a.m. start time for all high schools. While the new school schedule presented challenges, like the necessity of before- and after-school supervision for students, it has also had unexpected benefits. Staggered start times have allowed the district to save money on transportation, with one bus driver now able to do multiple runs for different age groups.)

The Slump: The Struggle of Middles

In the previous section, we discussed the power of beginnings and how to take full advantage of their potential. In this section, we’ll discuss the middle. Just like the slump we experience in a day, there's also a lull in the middle of an experience. However, this lull can have two possible outcomes—it can leave you feeling listless or inspire you to take action. We’ll explore the potential causes of the slump and discuss strategies to avoid getting stuck.

(Shortform note: In Managing Transitions, William and Susan Bridges discuss the impact of the midpoint in periods of transition. They explain that midpoints can often feel chaotic or directionless, leaving people feeling frustrated. However, like Pink, they describe middles as an opportunity for inspiration and increased creativity.)

Pink writes that our happiness and motivation decrease in the middle of an experience. Research tracking people’s level of well-being over the course of their lifetime shows an increase in happiness when people are in their 20s and 30s, a decrease in their 40s and 50s, and an increase after the age of 55—following the familiar pattern of crest, slump, and recovery. There's no definitive cause for this slump. Pink suggests that it could be the disappointment of unrealized expectations or perhaps that middles seem less important than beginnings or endings. There are also studies in primates that indicate that the slump may be a biological phenomenon. Regardless of why it happens, the effect of middles is ubiquitous.

Are Young People Actually Happier?

While Pink argues that people hit peak happiness in their 20s and 30s, the 2021 Mental State of the World Report suggests otherwise. The data revealed that respondents aged 65 and older actually had the highest Mental Health Quotient (MHQ) score, with scores decreasing in each subsequent generation. Respondents aged 18-24 years had the lowest scores, 29% lower than those <65+.

This report reinforces other studies suggesting that younger generations are disproportionately impacted by mental health issues. For example, a 2022 study of Gen Z found that 42% of participants have a diagnosed mental health condition, and nearly a third of participants rated their mental health as “bad.” However, 87% of participants also said that they felt comfortable discussing their mental health with others, which might suggest that younger generations show greater instances of mental health conditions because the stigma around mental health is changing.

Pink argues that there are two possible responses to the middle of an experience. You can allow the middle to leave you in a rut, or you can use it as inspiration. He offers the following strategies to ensure that you don’t lose momentum at the midpoint:

First, recognize midpoints when they’re happening. Calling attention to midpoints can help ensure you don’t get stuck in them. If you're aware of your tendency to lose motivation in the middle, then you can recognize the feelings as temporary, or anticipate the loss of momentum and implement strategies to counteract it. For example, if you set a goal to drink two liters of water every day, you can anticipate that you're most likely to fall out of the habit in the middle of the week. Knowing this, you can make sure you keep a water bottle on your desk every day, or give yourself a reward if you don’t miss a day the whole week.

(Shortform note: While midpoints are one reason why people get stuck, it’s not the only one. People can start feeling emotionally stuck when they're burned out, lack adequate resources or support, don’t see a deeper sense of meaning or purpose in their work, or are feeling resistant to change. If you're feeling stuck, psychologists recommend letting go of unrealistic expectations, practicing positive self-talk, getting clear on your long-term goals and vision, and, whenever possible, asking for help.)

Second, take advantage of the deadline effect (what Pink calls the “uh oh effect.”) The deadline effect is the internal fear that we haven't done enough, or are running out of time, and it’s a powerful tool of motivation at the midpoint of a project or experience. Citing a study by Connie Gersick, Pink explains that at first people working in teams often make little progress toward their goals until a sudden burst of productivity when they become aware that a deadline is approaching. Regardless of the timeline of the collaboration, Gersick found that this leap of progress almost always occurred around the midpoint.

(Shortform note: Taking advantage of the deadline effect relies on the existence of a deadline. If a project lacks an external deadline, you can try creating a deadline for yourself, although some argue that self-imposed deadlines don’t work. Other strategies include enlisting friends or coworkers as accountability partners, or creating an incentive for yourself.)

An Opportunity for Reflection

Pink argues that while the middle can leave you feeling unmotivated or inspired, it can also serve as an opportunity to reflect. While people often emphasize the importance of reflection at the end of an experience, taking time to reflect in the middle of an experience gives you the opportunity to reconsider your goals and course correct if necessary.

Some experts emphasize that reflection is an ongoing process that should take place at the beginning, middle, and end of a learning experience. They explain that reflection in the middle of an experience allows you to consider the knowledge and skills you’re using, identify knowledge and skills you still need to develop, and better identify and address any emergent challenges.

The Recovery: The Power of Endings

Just like beginnings and middles, endings matter and have a powerful, often invisible, influence over our behavior. (Shortform note: Part of why endings matter is because they force us to reflect more deeply on ourselves. Endings provide an opportunity to look back on an experience to see how it fits into our life narrative and has formed our sense of self. For example, when people retire, they often have to adjust to a new identity that doesn't revolve primarily around work. Endings, whether chosen or not, give us the opportunity to develop greater self-understanding.)

Pink argues that the end of something, whether that be a period of time or an experience, can impact our life in four ways.

First, endings disproportionately shape our memory of an experience. How an experience ends often determines how we remember it. The “peak-end rule,” proposed by psychologists Daniel Kahneman (author of Thinking, Fast and Slow) and Barbara Frederickson, explains that when people remember something, they imbue the greatest meaning to the “peak” of the experience and to the end of it.

While the disproportionate power of endings can solidify the memory of an experience, it can also distort our perception. An experience that's overwhelmingly positive but ends poorly is more likely to be remembered negatively than a mediocre experience that ends on a high note. For example, if a family vacation ends in a heated argument, you're more likely to remember that vacation in a negative light, even if the rest of the holiday was wonderful.

Awareness of the disproportionate power of endings can help ensure that when you reflect back on an experience, you think about it holistically, and avoid putting too much weight on the ending without taking the rest of the experience into consideration.

Do Endings Really Change Our Memory of Them?

A 2016 study published by the American Psychological Association challenged the commonly accepted “end effect,” finding that endings don't have a disproportionate impact on how people remembered experiences, unless the ending itself has special meaning, or people are led to believe that they should evaluate the experience based on its chronological structure.

Also, the peak-end rule only holds true for periods of short duration. According to Chip and Dan Heath, authors of The Power of Moments, endings tend to lose their importance when you’re looking back on long-term experiences. Endings and beginnings begin to blur. For example, graduating college and starting your first job is both an ending and a beginning.

Therefore, when looking back over a long period of time we tend to focus more on significant transitions than endings.

Second, endings can motivate us to take action. The end of a time period or an experience, whether literal or symbolic, often inspires people to take action or set goals. Consider the flurry of activity that happens as a school or work deadline approaches. With the end in sight, we're suddenly more motivated to get things done. For example, as the end of the year approaches, charitable giving increases dramatically. About 31% of total giving for the year happens in December, with 12% of giving occurring in the last three days.

You can take advantage of the motivating power of endings by setting deadlines for yourself or using the end of a year or a decade as a natural time to finally get started on that big aspirational goal you’ve been putting off.

(Shortform note: While people are more likely to set aspirational goals at the end of a decade, people are less likely to set goals as they age—a 2022 Gallup poll found that 79% of people aged 18-34 were likely to set goals for 2023 compared with only 62% of those 55 and older. However, goal-setting can be particularly helpful for older adults. Whether the goal is about getting more exercise, writing letters to friends, or taking an art class, goals provide a sense of independent purpose and control as people age.)

Third, endings help us determine what really matters. As people approach the end of an experience, or more poignantly, the end of their life, they become increasingly focused on what's most important to them. For example, psychologists have found that as people approach the end of life, their social network shrinks. They have fewer acquaintances or casual friends but a more stable inner circle of their closest friends and family. This theory of “socioemotional selectivity” explains that as people age, they become more selective about how and with whom they spend their time.

Knowing that endings naturally cause you to be more selective about how and with whom you spend your time can give you permission to become more intentional about how you spend time—guilt-free.

(Shortform note: In Being Mortal, Atul Gawande explains that people nearing the end of their lives are able to focus on what's important because they have a present-oriented outlook, becoming increasingly focused on close relationships, treasured memories, and simple pleasures. However, this can present a challenge when the people caring for them (family members or medical professionals) have a more future-oriented outlook. To provide a better end-of-life experience, caregivers and medical professionals need to align their care with their patients’ present-oriented goals, even if this means accommodating the choice to forgo medical treatment.)

Finally, endings often hold greater emotional weight. People tend to cherish experiences more when they know the experiences are ending. For example, in addition to narrowing their social circle, people facing the end of their life deeply value their physical comfort. While many people may have taken their comfort for granted in their earlier years, simple things become more valuable when we recognize we might lose them soon.

(Shortform note: To heighten the experience of endings, share the experience with someone else. Researchers have found that shared experiences, regardless of who we share them with, are more intense. Experiencing something with another person, even without speaking, can sharpen your focus and increase your awareness of what you're sensing and perceiving, giving it an extra emotional boost.)

But Pink also goes on to explain that the most meaningful endings are in fact bittersweet. For example, consider the beloved ending of the classic film Casablanca when (spoiler alert) Rick helps Ilsa, the woman he loves, escape Casablanca with her husband, knowing that it means the end of their relationship. Other endings, like graduations, the end of summer camp, or the marriage of a child, precipitate a similarly complex range of emotions. The “poignancy” of endings, according to Pink, lies in this complexity—a happiness that's often tinged with sadness.

You can take advantage of the poignancy of endings by embracing the mix of emotions that come with them. Even though we might think we want a happy ending, Pink reminds us that happy endings are rarely the most meaningful.

(Shortform note: Endings, while meaningful, can also be tinged with regret. To ensure that you can look back on endings without regret, research suggests trying to establish closure when you come to the end of an experience. Whether an ending is inevitable, like a graduation, or unexpected, like being fired from a job, researchers recommend trying to tie up loose ends before the opportunity is lost to prevent regret. Establishing closure might mean taking the time to say thank you to a close mentor or being honest about challenges in an exit interview.)

Working Together

Up until now, we've focused largely on how time affects the individual. But group timing, or synchronicity, is crucial to a functioning society. In this next section, we’ll elaborate on how you can apply what you know about the principles of timing when working in groups.

Pink argues that our survival depends on our ability to collaborate and coordinate with other people. Think about the level of synchronicity it takes to build a house or distribute food to grocery stores. We can't function without synchronicity. Therefore, while managing individual timing is important, the art of group timing is even more important.

(Shortform note: Scientists have long pondered the question of why humans evolved to collaborate when it seems as though acting in your own self-interest would be the evolutionary advantage. In The Social Conquest of Earth, Edward Wilson suggests that collaboration isn't the product of individual selection, as has been previously suggested, but of group selection. While selfish people might have an evolutionary advantage over altruistic people, groups of collaborators will be more successful than any individual selfish person. Wilson goes on to explain how human evolution is the product of the tension between these two seemingly conflicting impulses: self-interest and collaboration.)

According to Pink, to be successful, groups must synchronize on three different levels: around a leader, within the group, and around feelings of goodwill.

First, people must synchronize around a guiding force or leader. Pink argues that successful group timing requires the existence of a leader, whether that be a person—like an air traffic controller, guiding planes on landing and takeoff—or a thing, like a computer game, dictating when a game starts or whose turn is next.

The Rise of Leaderless Movements

Pink argues that successful group collaboration requires a leader, however the 21st century has seen a rise in leaderless protest movements like the 2011 Occupy Wall Street movement.

For many of these movements, the lack of a central leader is deliberate. While these leaderless movements are often difficult to repress, they also come with their own challenges. For example, the “yellow vests'' protests in France experienced an internal rift when some members of the movement wanted to continue demonstrating while others wanted to throw their weight behind political candidates in the European elections.

However, despite these challenges, some of the movements have seen success, like protests that resulted in the reversal of unpopular legislation in Hong Kong or the resignation of politicians in Bolivia. But political sociologists emphasize that when judging the success of social movements, it’s important to remember their purpose, which isn't to solve the problems that sparked them, but to raise the questions that aren't being addressed.

Next, people must synchronize with each other, effectively working together toward a common purpose. Pink argues that for people to willingly, and successfully, synchronize with other people, they must feel a sense of belonging. Belonging is an intrinsic human motivation, but Pink outlines three tools that can further elevate our sense of belonging: shared language, symbols of affiliation, and physical connection.

• Shared language can be a shared native language, slang, or jargon commonly understood within a specific field.
• Symbols of affiliation could be anything from a school uniform to a Super Bowl ring, a visual cue of belonging.
• Physical connection includes informal gestures of affection, like a hug or a pat on the back, to more formal examples of physical contact like a handshake.

(Shortform note: While shared language, symbols, and physical affection can bolster a sense of belonging, they don't guarantee it. Research has found that creating a sense of belonging, specifically for young people, requires more. To foster belonging, groups must offer personal agency, affirmation, opportunities to be heard, and an emphasis on individual and collective well-being.)

The final stage of synchronization is synchronizing with others. At this stage, people don't just work together because they're told to, or because everybody else is working together, but because it feels good to work together. This level of synchronization is particularly strong when people are acting in unison, like playing in an orchestra or ballroom dancing.

When people enter this final stage of synchronization, they create a self-reinforcing cycle of goodwill that comes when we coordinate with others. Pink argues that working in coordination with others contributes to our sense of well-being, which makes us want to work with others more, which in turn makes us better at synchronizing, which again increases feelings of well-being—a cycle that improves collective well-being and group synchronicity simultaneously.

But What About the Introverts?

Even though collaboration is central to the human experience, not everyone experiences working in groups the same way. In Quiet, Susan Cain explains that introverts, who make up at least a third of the US population, often prefer to work alone or with just one or two people. They tend to be quieter and more reflective, and may not gain the same sense of well-being from highly synchronized group activities.

Cain advocates for redesigning the collaboration process to consider the strengths of both introverts and extroverts. For example, she suggests using online brainstorming as a tool for generating ideas and creative flexible working environments in which there are both social spaces and quiet spaces for solitary work.