PDF Summary:Unmasking Autism, by Devon Price

Have you ever felt as though you’re presenting a phony version of yourself to the world? Do you feel the need to consciously put on a “mask” in order to get through each day? People with Autism commonly feel this way. In Unmasking Autism, social psychologist Devon Price explores Autistic masking—the way Autistic individuals camouflage their natural traits to fit into a neurotypical world. He explains that, while masking develops as a useful survival mechanism, it can do more harm than good, and he provides a guide for how to drop the mask.

In our guide, we’ll explain what Autism is, including how it’s diagnosed and viewed by the medical community. We’ll define masking and describe the harm it can cause. Finally, we’ll describe Price’s process for how you can unmask, including ways you can accommodate your Autism as well as ways society could change to accommodate Autistic people. In our commentary, we’ll add research that supports and expands on Price’s ideas, as well as complementary or alternative theories.

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Masking is a survival strategy and coping mechanism. People develop it unconsciously in order to avoid being identified as disabled, and to appear independent and self-sufficient. Because the traits of Autism are visible from a very early age, maskers start learning how to mask in early childhood: They notice that their natural traits and behaviors elicit negative reactions from others, such as social alienation, mockery, and punishments from adults, so they learn to hide those traits. They observe how other people behave and identify what’s considered “good” or “normal” behavior, and then they mimic that behavior.

(Shortform note: Some experts argue that Autistic masking is a form of impression management, a behavior whereby people make an effort—whether consciously or unconsciously—to control how others perceive them. Most people engage in impression management, which involves behaviors like suppressing your emotions, conformity, and flattery, and research shows it can be stressful and anxiety-inducing even for allistic people. These effects may be compounded for Autistic people because of the self-regulation and social acuity required for impression management. Autistic people often experience feelings of inauthenticity as a result of masking, as well as depersonalization, physical exhaustion, and burnout.)

Price explains that women, gender minorities, BIPOC, and poor people tend to face greater social consequences for their Autistic traits than white men, and thus are more likely to learn to mask. For example, a white man who frequently interrupts others might be viewed as assertive and powerful, whereas a Black woman who does the same is likely to be viewed as rude and unprofessional. Disabled people are also at a high risk of violence at both the individual and systemic level (50% of all people killed by police are disabled), and this risk is compounded for people in the demographics we’ve just discussed.

(Shortform note: Experts note some limitations in the research on how specific groups mask and are affected by masking. Most research has focused on Autistic people without intellectual disabilities, meaning we don’t know much about masking in Autistic people with intellectual disabilities. These experts also note a lack of research on masking in children and adolescents, as well as people in the Global South. Further research on these populations is needed to provide a fuller picture of the effects of masking on different demographics.)

(Shortform note: Experts note that the history of anti-Black racism, ableism (discrimination against disabled people), and poverty are closely intertwined in American history, which contributes to the way all three groups are treated by police today. In addition to the figure on police killings, research shows that over half of disabled Black people are arrested by age 28. Additionally, as a result of the higher rates of poverty in Black populations, a higher percentage of Black people are disabled than other racial groups. These and other factors illustrate the importance of considering all aspects of a person’s identity when assessing the mistreatment they’re subjected to.)

The Potential Harms of Masking

Price explains that many Autistic individuals resort to destructive coping mechanisms to maintain their masks, such as substance abuse or excessive exercise. He emphasizes the importance of recognizing the unsustainability and cost of masking in order to begin the process of unmasking and embracing your true self. In this section, we’ll look at some specific ways Autistic masking can be harmful.

Substance Misuse

One common coping mechanism is substance use, particularly alcohol. Many Autistic individuals turn to substances to dull overwhelming sensory input, bolster their courage in social situations, and relax inhibitions. However, this can lead to addiction and other health problems. Price notes that Autistic people are at higher risk for substance use disorders and that conventional addiction treatments such as cognitive behavioral therapy are less effective than treatments that integrate all aspects of a person’s health (including their Autism).

(Shortform note: Research on substance use among Autistic people is mixed, but some studies suggest that around 50% of Autistic people misuse substances at some point in their lives. They may also be two to three times more likely to become addicted to substances than allistic people are. And while some research suggests that Autistic people are less likely to misuse alcohol than allistic people are, it also suggests that they’re almost nine times as likely to use recreational drugs to manage their symptoms or mask their Autism.)

Eating Disorders

Eating disorders are another frequent issue among Autistic people, especially women, gender minorities, and late-diagnosed Autistics. Price discusses how some use restrictive eating or compulsive exercise as a way to control their bodies, regulate anxiety, or conform to social expectations of appearance. Eating disorders can provide structure and a sense of control, but are ultimately harmful. As with substance abuse treatment, conventional eating disorder treatments appear less effective for Autistic people than allistic people, but research suggests that treatments designed specifically for Autistics improve outcomes.

(Shortform note: While Price focuses largely on eating disorders as a form of masking, they can also be caused by other aspects of the Autistic experience. Many Autistic people are highly sensitive to the tastes, smells, and textures of different foods, causing them to avoid certain foods and gravitate toward others (Autistic people often have safe foods they can always rely on to provide a safe sensory experience, or same foods that they eat regularly for days, weeks, or months on end). The sounds of eating can also be distressing for Autistic people, which can make it especially difficult to eat around others. These factors can result in avoidant/restrictive food intake disorder (ARFID), which can hinder an Autist’s ability to meet their nutritional needs.)

Dissociation

Price says that many Autistic individuals cope by mentally dissociating from reality. This can manifest as retreating into their thoughts, struggling to recognize physical sensations or emotions (alexithymia), or becoming overly reliant on digital spaces and gaming. Dissociation can help them feel more in control of themselves as well as reducing cognitive load. However, excessive detachment can lead to neglecting their needs and further social isolation. Price emphasizes the importance of Autistic people learning to recognize and honor their feelings and needs.

(Shortform note: Dissociation can take two forms: involuntary and voluntary. Involuntary dissociation occurs when the nervous system becomes overwhelmed, which can be the result of overload related to Autistic masking (it can also result from trauma, hypnosis, and certain drugs). Voluntary dissociation is a decision to detach from reality or what you’re feeling in order to cope with it, and some Autists consider it a useful tool in moderation for getting through difficult situations or interactions.)

Exploitative Groups

Some Autistic people seek structure and belonging in groups that exert a lot of control over their followers, such as fringe religious communities, cults, or extremist political organizations. The rigid rules and sense of purpose offered by these groups can be appealing but often lead to exploitation and further isolation. Price describes some red flags to look for in identifying high-control groups that may exploit or manipulate you, including establishing an adversarial relationship between the group and the rest of the world, harsh punishments for small mistakes or incorrect thoughts, violating your boundaries, and quashing dissent with meaningless buzzwords or idioms.

Emotional Vulnerability and Autism Cults

Part of Autistic maskers’ susceptibility to exploitative groups may relate to the emotional toll of masking. Cult expert Diane Benscoter likens cult appeal to a virus, and she explains that it’s more dangerous for people who are emotionally vulnerable much like how a physical virus is more dangerous for someone who’s immunocompromised.

Autism advocate Shannon Rosa warns parents of Autistic children against the dangers of “Autism cults,” which she says target desperate parents overwhelmed by their child’s diagnosis. Organizations like Defeat Autism Now! (DAN!) lure parents in with the promise of a miracle cure for their child—but since no such cure exists, they simply exploit parents through costly treatments while demonizing Autism as a horrible disease. According to Rosa and Autists who have experience dealing with cults, the best defense against these groups is to listen to trusted friends, family, or allies to help you identify signs of exploitation. This advice underscores the importance of community, which we’ll explore further in later sections.

People-Pleasing

Price also explains that many Autistic people engage in compulsive people-pleasing and “fawning” behavior as a way to avoid conflict and gain social acceptance. Growing up being punished or alienated for their natural traits teaches many Autistic people to prioritize others’ feelings over their own, or to make themselves as unobtrusive and undemanding as possible. This can involve constantly monitoring and mirroring others’ emotions, suppressing their own needs and opinions, and struggling to set boundaries. While this may help avoid rejection in the short term, it ultimately leads to inauthentic relationships and emotional exhaustion.

(Shortform note: If you’re not sure whether you have people-pleasing tendencies, consider the following questions: Do you say “yes” to every request from others, even if it’s not something you want to do? Do you feel guilty anytime you have to tell someone “no”? Are you quick to take the blame for things, even when they’re not your fault? Do you struggle to stay true to your beliefs in the face of disagreement from others? Experts offer some tips for how to stop people-pleasing: Increase your self-awareness and self-acceptance, recognize the harm it poses to your personal relationships, get comfortable with saying “no,” and ask others for help when you need it.)

Autistic Burnout

Sometimes, writes Price, others’ demands exceed an Autistic person’s abilities to meet them. When this happens intensely and consistently over a long period of time, they may experience Autistic burnout. This is a condition of perpetual fatigue that can reduce a person’s ability to function in every area of their life. Developing healthy coping mechanisms can help reduce the risk of Autistic burnout, and as we’ll explain in the next section, so can unmasking your Autism.

Autistic Burnout vs. Classic Burnout

Many people are already familiar with burnout in the classical sense: It’s a state of exhaustion and detachment caused by excessive workload, as well as other factors like a lack of recognition or autonomy at work, mistreatment by colleagues or superiors, and a misalignment between your values and your company’s.

Autistic burnout differs from classical burnout in several ways: While classic burnout is exclusively caused by work stress, any life stressor can contribute to Autistic burnout. Particularly, masking, social demands, and an inability to access support are major factors. Autistic burnout is also characterized by exhaustion lasting three or more months, a loss of skills like executive functioning and communication, and a reduced tolerance for stimuli.

Classic burnout can usually be successfully treated by reducing your workload and finding ways to increase your energy, but treatment for Autistic burnout requires life changes like reducing masking, seeking out support and accommodations, and reducing the stimuli you have to deal with. Finally, the symptoms of Autistic burnout can last months, years, or even the rest of your life, though they can be eliminated or managed through proper treatments.

How to Unmask

Price explains that unmasking is a process in which Autistic individuals drop the pretense of neurotypicality and express themselves more authentically. It’s a gradual process of self-acceptance and learning to trust their feelings and instincts.

Price acknowledges that unmasking can be difficult and may sometimes lead to negative reactions from others. It may involve letting go of certain relationships or opportunities that are incompatible with your true self. However, he argues that the benefits of living more authentically—reduced stress, improved mental health, and a stronger sense of self—outweigh the potential drawbacks.

In this section, we’ll explain the process of unmasking, as well as both individual and societal changes that can assist in unmasking and improve the lives of Autistic people.

The Process of Unmasking

Price provides a step-by-step guide for how to take off the mask: 1) Recognize that you’re Autistic, 2) reevaluate your understanding of Autism, 3) embrace your special interests, 4) embody your principles, and 5) give yourself grace as you reflect on your life.

Step 1: Recognize That You’re Autistic

Price explains that the first step to unmasking is to recognize that you’re Autistic. This recognition can lead to a reconceptualization of your self-view and the life you’ve lived so far. Understand that you’re not defective, but rather that you’ve been living with a disability that hasn’t been properly accommodated by the people and world around you. This will help you detach from harmful beliefs about yourself, like that you’re unintelligent or unmotivated, and instead acknowledge that the flaws you’ve long been accused of having are simply traits of your neurodivergence.

(Shortform note: Price doesn’t explicitly explain how to recognize that you’re Autistic, but you can do so either by getting an official diagnosis or through self-determination. Discovering that you’re Autistic can elicit a lot of emotions, including fear of not being able to live a “normal” life, disgust or shame due to internalized ableism, or regret about how much you struggled as a result of not knowing you were Autistic sooner. However, it can also come with a sense of relief, as you finally have an explanation for why you’ve felt different your whole life and can find community with others who share your experiences. Once you come to terms with the diagnosis, you may feel a sense of acceptance that will help you in later stages of unmasking.)

Step 2: Reevaluate Your Understanding of Autism

The process of unmasking involves questioning societal beliefs about Autism and disability, as well as examining personal experiences through a new lens. Price explains that many people from marginalized groups experience self-stigma, meaning they internalize negative beliefs about their group. This can result in lowered self-esteem and a reluctance to ask for support. To fight this stigma and better recognize your strengths, consider the stereotypes about Autism and disability that you’ve been judged by and re-label them as positive, rather than negative, traits. For example, Autistic people are often told they’re too sensitive, but you can instead think of this as being empathetic and caring.

(Shortform note: You may also find it helpful to reevaluate your understanding of the model of Autism entirely. Some researchers argue that the depiction of Autism as a linear spectrum fails to represent the unique and varied experiences of all Autistic people and reduces them to value judgments like “severe” or “mild.” As an alternative to the spectrum model, some advocate the “wheel” or “pie chart” model, which can more accurately represent how Autistic traits can affect someone to different degrees, highlighting strengths while acknowledging challenges.)

Step 3: Embrace Special Interests

Price emphasizes the importance of embracing your special interests as an Autistic person. Autistic people are often discouraged from their special interests because their passion can make allistic people uncomfortable, but research shows that special interests are highly beneficial to Autistic people: They improve well-being and life satisfaction, as well as social, emotional, and even motor skills. Consequently, prohibiting or discouraging Autistic people—especially children—from pursuing their special interests can harm their mental health.

Reflect on the special interests you’ve had throughout your life, and make time to immerse yourself in them. This will help you appreciate your Autistic brain and give you more energy to continue the difficult process of unmasking.

(Shortform note: The joy Autistic people take in their special interests is similar to the state of flow in positive psychology. In Flow, Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi explains that flow is a state of complete immersion in an activity, characterized by focused concentration, loss of self-consciousness, and intrinsic reward. Engaging with their special interests often puts Autistic people into a flow state, but anyone can experience flow regardless of their neurotype, and it can provide similar benefits: improved life satisfaction and skills in various areas. If you’re allistic and struggling to grasp the appeal of special interests, consider a time when you’ve felt a state of flow, and then imagine feeling that every time you engage with a certain activity or topic.)

Step 4: Embody Your Principles

Price explains that a lifetime of masking can cause you to center your life and behavior around meeting others’ expectations instead of focusing on what’s important to you. Once you decide to unmask, you may find yourself confused as to what to do and how to behave. Think about important moments in your life and why they were meaningful to you, and then identify what ideals or principles guided you in those moments. This will help you identify your principles, which you can use to guide your actions and thoughts in the future rather than continuing to devote your energy to pleasing or gaining the approval of others.

(Shortform note: Some experts suggest that Autistic people experience identity differently than allistic people: Namely, while allistic people’s identities tend to be rooted in the social roles they occupy (such as their gender, race, religion, parental status, or career), Autistic people tend to have “experientially-constructed identities,” meaning they’re based in the Autistic person’s values, experiences, and interests. This theory could help explain why this step is so essential to unmasking—when you mask, you might take on a social identity because it’s expected, but when you start to pull off the mask you find that this identity doesn’t suit you. Identifying your principles and aligning with them will help you better understand who you are.)

Step 5: Give Yourself Grace

Finally, Price recommends that as you reflect on your life as a masking Autistic, do so with grace, and thank yourself for making it through the struggles you’ve faced. And while it may be hard, appreciate your Autism for the positive ways it’s affected you. Many people feel a sense of regret or longing when they think about what their life would have been like if they’d been diagnosed earlier or if they’d never been forced to mask. However, it’s important to recognize that these difficulties were the result of an unaccommodating world, not you or your Autism.

(Shortform note: This stage of extending yourself grace and moving past regret may be particularly difficult because Autistic people are more prone to perseverative cognition, or a tendency to engage in repetitive thinking patterns like rumination. Rumination consumes cognitive energy and is strongly linked to depression. Removing self-blame and thinking about the positives can help you avoid this tendency and make unmasking less painful and more rewarding.)

Self-Accommodation

Price explains that another part of unmasking is cultivating a life that supports you and your Autism. This can involve changes to your environment, following an atypical work schedule, being open about your Autism, and seeking out and engaging with people and communities who support you.

Change Your Environment

Price recommends that you create living and working spaces that cater to your Autistic sensory needs and preferences. Many Autistic people struggle with things like clutter, ambient noise, strong odors, and certain textures. To prevent these sensory issues from interfering with your daily life, adjust your environment so they’re no longer an issue. If you can’t stand clutter, try a more minimalist setup to your home. If ambient noise bothers you, consider investing in noise-canceling headphones or sound-proofing your home or office.

On the other hand, if you need a lot of sensory stimulation in your environment, try putting up bright, colorful posters or wallpaper, buying a white noise machine or playing music throughout the day, or collecting scented items like candles and incense.

(Shortform note: While Price’s tips work well for your home or office space, you may not always be in control of the environments you have to spend time in. It may be especially difficult to cope in public spaces, which are often crowded, loud, bright, and generally tiresome. To make these spaces easier for yourself, consider these tips: Make sure you get enough rest before a major outing so you’ll have more energy to handle all the sensory input. When you notice yourself becoming overwhelmed, find a way to remove yourself to a quiet, private space. Shop during less-busy hours and at less-busy stores. Wear earplugs or sunglasses to reduce sensory input. These and other techniques can make it easier to get through the requirements of daily life.)

Re-balance Work and Rest

Price also explains that Autistic people often have different relationships with time and productivity compared to allistic people. Many Autistics work best in intense bursts of hyperfocus followed by periods of rest rather than trying to be moderately productive for eight hours a day. They also tend to need more sleep than allistic people due to the energy drain of existing in a world not built for them, and they often suffer from sleep disturbances. For these and other reasons, many Autistic people can’t maintain a traditional 9-to-5, 40-hour work week without damaging their health (and Price notes that this schedule is often harmful for neurotypical people as well).

To deal with these difficulties, Price recommends finding a job and work schedule that fits your natural rhythms and rest needs through methods like flexible work arrangements, self-employment, or structuring your day around peak productivity periods. However, he acknowledges that this isn’t possible for everyone due to the need for income, which we’ll address more later. Additionally, you’ll need to be willing to say “no” to certain projects or opportunities, potentially coming back to them later rather than forcing yourself through them because you feel you’re expected to.

Applying “Spoon” Theory to Autism

Due to these differences and the disconnect between Autistic brains and societal expectations, it can be difficult to identify how best to use the limited energy you have. To make this process easier, consider the “spoon” theory of disability: According to this theory, each “spoon” represents a unit of energy needed for daily living. Some activities require more spoons than others—for example, getting out of bed may require one spoon, but an hour of work or school may require three. While most people wake up each day with unlimited spoons, disabled people have a limited number of spoons each day, and this number varies depending on their total spoon use the day before, sleep, mood, and other factors.

Autism advocates have adapted this theory to apply more specifically to Autism: In Autistic spoon theory, you also have different types of spoons that apply to different areas of functioning. So even if you have a total of, say, 30 spoons for the day, you may only have five spoons for executive functioning, five for socializing, five for managing sensory input, and so on. If you run out of spoons for executive functioning, you can’t take spoons from another area to compensate. This theory can help you better understand why you might have the energy to exercise for an hour but can’t work up the stamina to clean your house: These don’t just require different amounts of energy, but different types entirely.

To use spoon theory to balance your work and rest, consider how many and what type of spoons your different activities require, and how many you typically recover from sleeping. Try to find employment that allows you to pace your workday according to your spoons, and when you simply don’t have the spoons to do something someone’s asking of you, be ready to say “no.”

Be Open About Your Autism

Price explains that the reason we feel the need to mask is because it’s not socially acceptable to seem Autistic. As mentioned earlier, many people unconsciously view Autistic traits as weird or creepy and tend to judge people for them immediately. However, when the person you’re interacting with knows you’re Autistic, they tend to be less judgmental and more understanding and welcoming. To combat the social stigma against Autism and promote this more accepting attitude, Price recommends being very open about your Autism and presenting yourself to the world authentically (as much as you’re comfortable doing so).

Price emphasizes that unmasking is a process that involves learning to disappoint others, express disagreement, and ask for accommodations without shame or apology. He lists some specific ways you can do this, including openly using assistive devices, stimming in public, dressing in ways that prioritize sensory comfort over social norms, and practicing assertiveness in social situations. Additionally, don’t feel like you need to hide the ways you make your life easier as an Autistic person. If you have to look up and study maps of new places before you visit them, script out social interactions, or use unusual self-reward systems to get things done, explain these to your friends and loved ones to help them better understand and support you.

(Shortform note: Research supports Price’s assertion that being open about your Autism combats social stigma. One study showed that reducing biases against Autism helps both Autistic and allistic people view Autism more positively. Others show that spending time with an Autistic person results in more positive attitudes toward those with the disorder. Notably, the quality of time spent with an Autistic person was a more impactful factor than the quantity of time, further supporting Price’s advice to be authentically Autistic around others. Additionally, knowing that a person is Autistic is also associated with more positive attitudes toward them and their needs, which shows the benefit of explaining your accommodations to your loved ones.)

Seek Out Community

Price emphasizes the importance of finding community with other Autistic and neurodivergent people. He recommends seeking out individuals who are genuinely supportive and understanding of Autistic needs and traits. Many Autistic people have insecure attachment styles due to past experiences of rejection and misunderstanding. (Attachment styles are the ways we relate to others, based on our early experiences with caregivers.) By intentionally seeking out and nurturing relationships with accepting individuals, Autistic people can develop more secure attachments and improve their overall well-being.

(Shortform note: The attachment styles Price describes derive from attachment theory, developed by John Bowlby and Mary Ainsworth in the 20th century. While a caregiver’s interactions with an Autistic child can determine or affect their attachment style, it’s important to acknowledge that parenting at an early age can’t cause Autism. While this may seem obvious now, a prevailing belief in the mid-1900s was that Autism was caused by a lack of affection and attention in infancy—known as “refrigerator parenting.” This misconception resulted in a great deal of blame and shame toward parents of Autistic children for decades until the theory was debunked by Autism researcher Bernard Rimland.)

Many niche interest communities also have a high proportion of Autistic members and organizers, explains Price. Communities like fandoms, conventions, and kink communities appeal to Autistic people because they offer a sense of inclusion and acceptance. They also often have clear rules for how to interact with other members, which can reduce social anxiety and uncertainty in social situations. Groups organized by Autistic people specifically often have sensory accommodations as well, providing more comfortable and accessible environments for Autistic individuals to socialize and express themselves.

(Shortform note: While niche communities can be highly beneficial to Autistic people, some may find it difficult to get involved. To join and engage with such communities, consider ways you can share your passion with others, such as creating a YouTube channel, buying merchandise, or making and sharing fanart. If you’re looking for spaces dedicated specifically to Autistic people, organizations such as the Association for Autism and Neurodiversity hold events and conferences designed for Autistic attendees. Parents looking for a dedicated Autistic experience for their children could consider programs like Camp Akeela, which provides children with choice-based activities, a high counselor-camper ratio, and tailored accommodations.)

Societal Accommodations

We’ve described many ways you can unmask and make life easier for yourself as an Autistic person. However, Price explains that these tactics alone aren’t enough to overcome the disabling aspects of Autism, or the social pressure that leads us to mask in the first place. Instead, we need to incorporate systemic changes to make society more accommodating to Autistic people—a view that aligns with the social model of disability we described earlier.

Price outlines several policy recommendations to create a more neurodiverse world. These include expanding legal protections for disabled people, such as improving enforcement of accessibility requirements and providing more robust worker protections. Price also suggests broadening social norms to include and normalize Autistic behaviors and communication styles. He emphasizes the importance of increased public and professional education on neurodiversity, particularly for educators, health care providers, and mental health professionals.

Additionally, Price argues in favor of universal health care and basic income to support Autistic individuals. As mentioned earlier, many Autistics remain undiagnosed due to lack of health care access, and those who are diagnosed often struggle with employment or face restrictive disability benefits systems. A universal basic income would provide a safety net for all, regardless of disability status.

Price emphasizes that these changes would benefit both Autistic and allistic people. Creating a world where Autistic people can safely unmask would allow anyone with differences to be seen as worthy and whole, and implementing universal supports like those described above would give everyone greater freedom to not only survive, but thrive.

Universal Design: Making Society Work for Everyone

The societal changes Price describes mirror the concept of “universal design,” which refers to a type of design intended to make products and environments that are usable by everyone without needing to be adapted. This differs from “accessibility design,” which refers to products or environments designed specifically for certain groups such as disabled people.

For example, a bathroom with a designated stall for disabled people, equipped with a rail, motion-sensor flush, and wheelchair-accessible toilet would be a type of accessible design: It’s designed specifically for disabled people and creates a separate space for them. This can be highly beneficial, but it still segregates the group in question and has significant limitations (if someone else is already using that one stall, any other disabled people with similar needs will be unable to access it). However, a bathroom in which all the stalls were built this way would be a type of universal design.

Universal design is based on seven principles, including the following:

• Equitability: Anyone, regardless of status or condition, can use it.

• Flexibility: The design can be adapted across as many different preferences and abilities as possible.

• Simplicity: It should be easy for anyone to understand and use.

• Tolerance for error: The consequences for misuse are minimized or eliminated.

• Low effort: Use of the design requires little effort and doesn’t result in fatigue.

While the concept of universal design was initially defined in terms of architecture and physical spaces, it can be adapted to all of the types of accommodations Price describes. In the same way that a universally designed facility improves the experience for all people who use it, such societal accommodations would improve life for many if not all people in the society.