PDF Summary:Uncovering Egyptian Mythology, by Lucas Russo

Through vivid storytelling, Uncovering Egyptian Mythology by Lucas Russo reveals the incredible world of ancient Egyptian mythology—a saga spanning over three millennia of pharaohs, powerful gods, and iconic landmarks. This overview traces Egypt's mythological origins from creation stories centered around primordial deities to the final Ptolemaic period under Greek rule.

Captivating tales bring age-old gods like Ra, Isis, and Osiris to life, highlighting how cycles of death and rebirth shaped both the mythology and ancient Egypt itself. Russo delves into the pantheon of gods and mythical beings, drawing connections to cultural practices. The summary illuminates how mortals like Imhotep and Hatshepsut entered the mythological realm, while famous historical figures like Akhenaten altered belief systems through revolutionary change.

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• It could be argued that the mummification process was a practical response to the environmental conditions in Egypt that favored preservation, rather than a direct symbol of Osiris's eternal nature.
• The myth could also be seen as a reflection of the human desire for continuity and legacy, with the kingship passing from Osiris to Horus, rather than a broader principle of eternal rebirth applicable to all aspects of life.

Horus: God of the Sky and of Kings, Conflict With Set

Horus was a significant god from the start of Egypt's historical record. He was revered as a model for pharaohs, the legitimate successor to Osiris, and a god who, like Ra, embodied the circle of life and death. Russo tells his tale, starting from his supernatural birth from Isis, through his conflict with Set, to his rise to power as ruler of Egypt.

Isis, after Set killed her husband, needed to keep her unborn child safe from further violence. She retreated to a cluster of papyrus in the delta of the Nile, where she asked both the gods and ordinary people for help and protection. At that location, she bore Horus.

The tale of Horus's early years is rife with dangers and illness caused by Set. But Isis, using her expertise in medicine and magic, manages to keep the child safe and to cure him from wounds and stings. Russo ties the myth to the development of actual medicine as practiced by the people of Egypt in ancient times, stating that spells uttered by Isis were recorded in medical texts and employed to treat patients.

Horus, when he reached manhood, challenged Set for Egypt's throne, demanding his rightful inheritance. The conflict between the deities took a long time. They called upon additional gods to advocate for their cause and participated in physical combats such as a sailing competition and a battle when both transformed into hippopotami. Ra's support prolonged Set's claim, and the whole conflict started to appear as a manifestation of natural forces battling each other.

Eventually, their conflict took on a sexual aspect. There isn't much information about it. In some accounts of the myth, Set raped Horus, and Horus similarly caught Set's semen. Isis used magic to transfer it to some lettuce, which Seth ate, causing him to become pregnant with semen that came out of his forehead as a golden disc. This became a potent emblem of defeat. The conflict ended when Horus gained the legitimate throne of Egypt.

Practical Tips

• Engage with local or online communities interested in history and mythology to share insights and learn from others about the impact of Horus on Egyptian culture. Participating in forums, attending lectures, or joining book clubs focused on ancient civilizations can expand your knowledge and appreciation for Horus's role in history.
• Establish a mentorship chain within your community or workplace, mirroring the mentorship role Horus had in the pharaonic lineage. Offer to guide someone less experienced, and encourage them to do the same for others in the future. This could be as simple as helping a new colleague understand the ins and outs of your workplace culture or teaching a younger family member a skill you've mastered.
• Create a personal journal themed around the cycle of life and death, using symbols and imagery that resonate with you. By reflecting on your own experiences of growth, transformation, and endings, you can gain a deeper understanding of your life's cycles, much like Horus symbolizes in mythology. For example, use a phoenix to represent rebirth in your career after a setback or a tree through the seasons to symbolize personal growth and renewal.
• Use the theme of supernatural birth to reflect on and redefine your own beginnings. Write a journal entry or create a piece of art that reimagines a significant starting point in your life—be it a career, relationship, or personal growth—as a moment of magical or extraordinary origin, giving it new meaning and significance.
• Create a personal sanctuary space where you can retreat and reflect during challenging times, much like Isis sought refuge in the delta. Find a quiet corner in your home or a peaceful outdoor setting where you can be alone with your thoughts. Decorate this space with items that bring you comfort and peace, such as plants, cushions, or photographs of loved ones.
• Create a "resilience roadmap" by identifying past obstacles you've overcome and the strategies that helped you succeed. This can be a visual timeline or a written document. For instance, if you once overcame a health issue, map out the steps you took to recover, and identify the 'Set-like' challenges and the 'Horus-like' resilience you demonstrated.
• Develop a "safety charm" DIY craft project using symbols or items that represent protection and healing to you. This could be a piece of jewelry, a keychain, or a small token that you carry with you. The act of creating and carrying this charm can serve as a personal reminder of your resilience and the protective measures you've put in place in your life.
• Explore the intersection of history and wellness by creating a personal journal that documents your experiences with ancient-inspired remedies. For example, if you come across an herb that was used in historical texts for calming purposes, try incorporating it into your relaxation routine and note any effects in your journal.
• Engage in role-playing exercises with friends or family where you practice asserting yourself for a leadership position or greater responsibility. Take turns being the challenger and the incumbent, like Horus and Set, to develop your negotiation and persuasion skills in a supportive environment.
• You can analyze your personal conflicts by identifying "advocates" within your social circle. Imagine you're facing a difficult decision or conflict similar to Horus and Set. Write down the issue at hand and then list friends, family members, or colleagues who have a stake or interest in the outcome. Consider how their perspectives and advice might represent different aspects of the situation, much like the gods in the myth. This can help you see the conflict from multiple angles and make a more informed decision.
• Develop a personal challenge that involves overcoming a series of physical and mental tasks, such as a mini-triathlon followed by a puzzle-solving contest. This self-imposed competition can help you build resilience and adaptability, reflecting the multifaceted challenges faced by Horus and Set.
• Identify a mentor who embodies the qualities you admire and seek their guidance to reinforce your own goals. Just as Ra's support was crucial for Set, having a mentor can provide you with the wisdom and backing you need to pursue your ambitions. For example, if you're aiming for a promotion, find someone in your field who has successfully climbed the ladder and ask them for advice on how to navigate your career path.
• Use natural elements in decision-making by assigning options to different natural phenomena and observing them over time. If you're deciding between two job offers, assign one to a plant and the other to a stream of water. Care for the plant and observe the stream over a few days or weeks. The state or behavior of these elements might offer you a new perspective or metaphorical insight into your decision, such as growth and stability versus flow and adaptability.
• Use role-playing games (RPGs) to simulate the dynamics of mythological conflicts. Create characters and scenarios that echo the tension between Horus and Set, allowing you to explore the complexities of their relationship in a controlled, imaginative setting. This can be a fun way to engage with mythological themes and understand the underlying emotions and motivations.
• Use the myth as a case study in a discussion group focused on ethics and historical context. By analyzing the actions and motivations of mythological figures, you can draw parallels to modern-day ethical dilemmas, encouraging participants to consider how cultural narratives influence our moral reasoning.
• Write a short story or comic strip that modernizes ancient myths, incorporating contemporary issues or settings. You could reimagine the story of Isis and Set in a modern context, perhaps as a satire on modern dietary fads or genetic engineering, to explore the timeless themes of deception and consequences.
• Develop a daily affirmation practice using imagery from the assertion to reinforce self-confidence. You could say something like, "I am capable of creating golden opportunities from my efforts," as a way to remind yourself that your actions can lead to valuable outcomes, much like the golden disc represents a valuable creation.
• Create a "legitimacy map" for a project or goal you're working on. Just as Horus's claim to the throne was contested, you may face challenges in your endeavors. Map out the stakeholders involved, their interests, and potential conflicts. Then, strategize ways to align their interests with your goal, ensuring a smoother path to success.

Key Male Deities: Anubis, Thoth, Ptah, Apis, Aten

Russo introduces a whole slew of lesser gods. Certain deities, like Anubis and Thoth, were crucial for the Egyptians' beliefs about mortality and the beyond. Anubis was the deity of mummification, who presided over preparing the deceased for a soul's entry into Duat. Thoth, the wisdom deity, was responsible for bringing order to the universe by creating language and the system of hieroglyphs. Ptah, being the god of craftsmanship and creation, was a patron of artisans, architects, and all manner of workers.

Russo points to Apis, the sacred bull and an intermediary between Ptah and people, as a rather unique deity, unlike others in Egyptian mythology. Apis wasn't depicted in human form but was instead a real animal. After Apis's death, Egyptians mourned and searched for a new sacred calf, repeating the cycle. In time, Apis was merged with Osiris and became Serapis.

The god Aten, a deity associated with the solar disk, deserves a special mention because Akhenaten selected him to be the sole deity during his revolution. Aten represented the solar capacity to dispel the darkness and to bring light, order, and beauty. Unlike any other Egyptian god, Aten was never depicted in human form. Instead, his representation was a solar circle with rays that reached down to Earth in a protective embrace.

Context

• Anubis was considered a protector of graves and cemeteries, ensuring that the deceased were safe from desecration and that their journey to the afterlife was secure.
• The ibis, Thoth's symbolic animal, was associated with wisdom and knowledge. The bird's methodical behavior in searching for food was likened to the careful and precise nature of writing and record-keeping.
• The worship of Apis dates back to the earliest periods of Egyptian history, indicating the long-standing importance of this deity in the religious and social life of ancient Egypt.
• The Apis bull was central to religious ceremonies and festivals, often paraded through the streets of Memphis, the city where its temple was located.
• Unlike Apis, who was depicted as a bull, Serapis was often depicted in human form, with Greek-style features, a modius (grain measure) on his head, symbolizing abundance and fertility.
• During Akhenaten's reign, art became more naturalistic and less rigid, reflecting the new religious ideals associated with Aten.
• In many cultures, light is a symbol of knowledge, purity, and life. Aten's association with light and the sun underscores themes of enlightenment, growth, and the sustaining of life.
• Atenism is often seen as one of the earliest recorded instances of monotheism, influencing later religious developments in the region.

The Goddesses of Egypt's Past

Isis: Mother Goddess, Spouse of Osiris, Protector of Pharaohs

Russo describes Isis as possibly the most significant deity in the Egyptian religion. Her worship evolved over centuries, expanding even into the territories of the Greek and Roman civilizations. On one level, Isis was important for the Egyptians as a bereaved wife of Osiris. Her quest for her husband's remains and her commitment to resurrecting him struck a chord with anyone who experienced a personal tragedy or grieved a lost one, even if only an animal.

Russo points to Isis's protectiveness over her son Horus as also fueling her widespread popularity. Many of the tales involving Isis stress her role as a loving mother defending her child not only from the perils of the natural (and supernatural) world, but also from the aggression of Set. The deity even appealed to ordinary mortals for aid and used magic spells to cure Horus from ailments. Those very same spells were later documented in Egyptian records of medicine, also making Isis the goddess of medicine and childbirth.

All of this resulted in the elevation of Isis from a rather simple mother goddess to a universal goddess of life and death, order, the pharaohs and, later, even of the universe.

Context

• Isis appears in various Greco-Roman literary works, such as Apuleius's "The Golden Ass," which helped disseminate her myths and attributes to a broader audience.
• As a bereaved wife, Isis symbolized the ideal of marital devotion and the power of love to overcome even death. Her image often depicted her with a throne-shaped headdress, signifying her role as a queen and a powerful figure in her own right.
• In ancient Egyptian society, magic (heka) was considered a fundamental force that maintained the universe. It was not seen as supernatural but as a natural part of the world, used by gods and humans alike to influence events and heal.

Other Perspectives

• The claim that Isis is "possibly the most significant deity" is inherently speculative and acknowledges the possibility of other deities being of equal or greater importance within the Egyptian religious framework.
• The idea of resurrection might not resonate with those who accept death as a final and irreversible part of life, rather than something that can be undone.
• The emphasis on Isis's maternal protectiveness might overshadow the complexity of her character and the multifaceted reasons for her veneration in different historical periods and regions.
• The documentation of spells in Egyptian medical records does not necessarily confirm their efficacy or that they were directly derived from the mythological actions of Isis.
• The term "universal goddess" could be seen as anachronistic, projecting modern interpretations onto ancient beliefs.

Nephthys: Mourning and Underworld Goddess, Sister of Isis

Nephthys, sister to Isis and Set's spouse, was a deity associated with mourning and a helper to Isis during her search for Osiris's body parts. Despite being married to Set, she still mourned Osiris, embracing Set's positive qualities. Russo points to the myths surrounding her birth of Anubis from Osiris as another illustration of the fluidity of relationships and alliances in Egyptian mythology.

Besides being a mourner, Nephthys also served as a guardian goddess for nursing. In some sources, she's described as a wet-nurse for a newborn pharaoh. She was also connected to night and darkness and to the rituals surrounding the transition from the realm of the living to the land of the dead. As such, she appeared in both a funerary context and within folklore as a deity of beer and drunkenness with a power to ward off hangovers.

Context

• Marriages among deities often symbolized alliances and the merging of different aspects of life and nature. Nephthys's marriage to Set could represent the necessary coexistence of order and chaos in the universe.
• The story reflects broader themes in Egyptian culture, such as the importance of lineage, the divine right to rule, and the legitimization of power through divine ancestry.
• The association of Nephthys with nursing could be reflected in rituals and ceremonies that sought her blessing for the health and well-being of children, particularly those of royal lineage.
• As a guardian of the dead, Nephthys was believed to offer protection against evil spirits and ensure safe passage to the afterlife, emphasizing her role in the transition between worlds.
• The association of Nephthys with beer and drunkenness may reflect the dual nature of many Egyptian deities, who often embodied both positive and negative aspects of life, such as celebration and mourning.

Bastet, the Feline Goddess Associated With Fertility

Russo credits Bastet with having a unique role in Egyptians' hearts, representing the veneration of cats. Cats played a vital part in ancient Egypt by protecting farmers' fields from vermin. Their fierce protective nature towards their kittens positioned Bastet as an ideal goddess to be connected not just to households, but also to childbirth and fertility.

Bastet's significance is attested to by the magnificent festivals dedicated to her in Bubastis. Russo cites Herodotus, who was astonished by the large numbers of visitors attending the feasts and describes the celebration as a period of lavish offerings, dance, music, and feasting. Bastet’s significance evolved throughout time, however. Originally a warrior deity similar to Sekhmet, she eventually gained a gentler image, partly associated with pregnancy and childbirth.

Context

• Cats frequently appeared in Egyptian art and iconography, often depicted sitting or lying beneath chairs, symbolizing their integral role in domestic life and their divine protection.
• The presence of cats in agricultural settings reduced the spread of diseases carried by rodents, contributing to healthier living conditions.
• The worship of Bastet included rituals and offerings that emphasized her role in fertility and childbirth. Amulets and statues of Bastet were commonly used in homes to invoke her blessings for protection and fertility.
• The festivals included not only religious rituals but also social gatherings that featured music, dance, and boat processions on the Nile, drawing participants from across Egypt.
• The city of Bubastis, located in the Nile Delta, was the center of worship for Bastet. It was known for its grand temple dedicated to the goddess, which attracted pilgrims from across Egypt and beyond.
• Such events were occasions where social hierarchies could be temporarily relaxed, allowing people from different classes to participate in shared celebrations.

Hathor: Complex Sky Goddess, Sun, Love, Music, Rebirth

Hathor, one of the most complex goddesses, was often depicted with the solar disc resting on her horns, signifying her roles as both a sky goddess and a goddess of the sun. Russo describes Hathor as a figure with many facets. She could be Ra's parent, spouse, or daughter, and her parentage is very often unclear. She could be identified with other goddesses, such as Sekhmet, whose form she assumed while rampaging against humankind, or with Tefnut who, in a similar manner to Hathor, had to be convinced by Thoth to come back to Egypt.

Hathor’s rebellion against Ra exemplifies one of the central themes in the myths of Egypt – the cycle of death and rebirth. First, she rebelled out of her anger and threatened to plunge the world into obscurity and death. Russo emphasizes the significance of beer in pacifying her and restoring her mild, benevolent nature. Her second rebellion was out of joy, and it, too, was ended by Thoth's cunning and trickery.

But Hathor was not solely about destruction and passion. Russo presents her as a deity of joy, music, and dance, as well as love and sexual pleasure. According to the beliefs of ancient Egyptians, music, dancing, alcohol, and sexual pleasure were gifts from the gods that brought joy to life—and Hathor was the deity overseeing them.

Practical Tips

• Use role-play as a tool for empathy and understanding in your relationships. When faced with a conflict or misunderstanding, try to embody the perspective of the other person, imagining their thoughts and feelings as if they were another deity in your personal pantheon. This can improve communication and deepen connections with others by acknowledging the complexity within each individual.
• Incorporate beer into your cooking to discover its flavor-enhancing properties. Beer can be used in various recipes, from marinades to bread, to add depth and complexity to your dishes. This culinary exploration can be a way to appreciate beer's versatility beyond its role as a beverage, potentially leading to a more harmonious and enjoyable dining experience.
• Create a personal joy playlist with songs that evoke happiness and dance to it daily to infuse your routine with the spirit of Hathor. By selecting music that uplifts your mood and setting aside time to dance, you're actively engaging in an activity that promotes joy and well-being. For example, you might choose upbeat tracks from various genres that make you feel good and commit to a 10-minute dance session every morning.

Other Perspectives

• In some belief systems or philosophies, the pursuit of pleasures like those mentioned could be seen as distractions from more important life goals or moral imperatives.

Prominent Goddesses Included Sekhmet, Maat, Mut, and Neith

Russo introduces a whole slew of lesser goddesses, focusing on their attributes, origins, and symbolic roles. Sekhmet, the lion goddess, was a fierce warrior who could both bring the plague and cure it, mirroring her status as the destructive as well as the benign aspect of Hathor. She was wed to Ptah and bore Nefertem, the flower god. Maat was more than a goddess; she was also an essential idea in Egyptian culture, embodying fairness and harmony. She embodied cosmic harmony and oversaw both the proper functioning of the natural world and the ethical behavior of the Egyptians.

Mut, wife of Amun and the god's mother, was another Egyptian goddess who adopted some traits from other deities, such as Amunet, Sekhmet, and Hathor. Because she was the king's mother, she safeguarded female pharaohs. Neith, an ancient goddess from before the world's formation, was associated with weaving, war, and death. Similarly to Ptah, she was capable of creating the cosmos, and for this, the Greeks saw her as an equivalent of their own goddess, Athena.

Context

• Sekhmet's association with Hathor, another major goddess, underscores the fluidity of roles among Egyptian deities. Hathor was primarily a goddess of love and joy, and Sekhmet's destructive side was seen as a necessary counterpart to Hathor's nurturing aspect.
• Maat was central to the Egyptian concept of the afterlife. The deceased's heart was weighed against the feather of Maat in the Hall of Two Truths to determine their worthiness for the afterlife. This process underscored her role in maintaining cosmic order and justice.
• The absorption of traits from other deities is a common theme in Egyptian mythology, reflecting the fluid and syncretic nature of their religious beliefs. This allowed Mut to embody a wide range of attributes, making her a versatile and powerful goddess.
• Weaving in ancient Egypt was not only a practical skill but also a metaphor for creation and the interconnectedness of life. Neith's association with weaving highlights her role in the creation and maintenance of the universe.

Monstrous Beings and Mythical Figures in Egyptian Folklore

Ammit: Devourer and Judge of Souls

Ammit was the Devourer of the Dead, a hybrid being with a lioness's body, a crocodile's head, and a hippopotamus's hindquarters, signifying the greatest dangers associated with the natural world of Egypt. Ammit's role was to consume the hearts of the dead deemed unjust during the weighing ceremony in the underworld. Russo says that Ammit’s role differed from the devil or evil spirits in other traditions since she did not tempt people to sin. Instead, she embodied the fear of ultimate punishment for unethical behavior. Being eaten by her meant to perish forever and lose any chance of rebirth in the afterlife.

Practical Tips

• Use the concept of Ammit to reflect on personal habits by identifying and 'devouring' your own metaphorical 'dead'—unproductive or harmful habits. Create a journal where you list habits you want to eliminate and track your progress as you work to 'devour' them, much like Ammit did with the unworthy. This can be a powerful tool for self-improvement and personal growth.
• Develop a "heart balance" mobile app that allows users to track their daily decisions, categorizing them as just or unjust, and provides a visual representation of their moral balance over time, encouraging self-improvement and ethical awareness.
• Engage in creative writing exercises where you personify concepts of good and evil in unique ways. Create stories or characters that embody moral choices without relying on the traditional trope of temptation. This can help you think about morality in a more nuanced way, recognizing that the struggle between right and wrong is often internal rather than caused by an external entity.
• Develop a "consequence simulator" exercise to envision the potential outcomes of your choices. Before making decisions, especially significant ones, take a moment to visualize the possible consequences as vividly as possible, as if they were immediate. This could involve writing down the best-case and worst-case scenarios for your actions, which can help you consider the ethical implications more seriously.
• Develop a "Rebirth Plan" to symbolically experience renewal. Draw inspiration from the concept of rebirth in the afterlife by identifying aspects of your life you wish to improve or change. Write down these aspects and create actionable steps to achieve them. For example, if you want to be more patient, your plan might include daily mindfulness exercises and setting specific goals for situations where you typically lose patience.

Apophis, the Serpent Who Battled Ra and Represented Chaos

Apophis, a giant serpent, challenged Ra every night as the sun god was journeying on his barque over Duat's dark waters. The author describes Apophis as embodying chaos and evil, in direct contrast to Maat, and thus a constant threat to the universe's order. Interestingly though, Apophis is presented by Russo as being born to Neith and Khnum, rather than existing from the start. This is quite different from other myths, which often portray evil as a primeval force.

Apophis's existence was linked to the possibility of choice between good and evil given to every human being. Set, as the embodiment of disorder, was the sole deity capable of battling Apophis. The annual celebrations, during which effigies of Apophis were built and later destroyed by spitting, burning, or stabbing, not only dispelled Apophis’s power symbolically but also venerated Set as a protector.

Context

• Duat is the Egyptian underworld, a realm of the dead where the sun god Ra travels each night. It is depicted as a complex and perilous place filled with various challenges and entities.
• The concept of a deity or force being born rather than existing eternally can symbolize the emergence of certain aspects of the world or human experience, such as the introduction of chaos into an ordered universe.
• Apophis, as a serpent, is a common symbol of chaos in many cultures. His nightly battle with Ra represents the perpetual threat of disorder, mirroring the human struggle to maintain moral integrity.
• Set's ability to combat Apophis underscored his importance in rituals and mythology. Despite his negative aspects, his role in protecting Ra elevated him to a position of reverence in certain contexts.
• The act of physically destroying the effigies could have provided a psychological release for participants, allowing them to confront and symbolically overcome fears associated with chaos and disorder.

Grotesque Protective Household Deities: Bes and His Counterpart, Beset

Bes and his female counterpart, Beset, were household deities, protecting houses and families from both physical and supernatural threats. The author notes how their portrayal is significantly different from other Egyptian deities. They were typically shown as grotesque, dwarf-like figures whose faces, however, conveyed anger and readiness to defend. Despite being demons or monstrous, they were nearly entirely benevolent. They repelled venomous reptiles and evil entities, and protected young ones against nightmares.

Russo explains how ordinary people’s reverence for these gods combined both religious aspects and simple folk beliefs. Their figures were carved on amulets worn in houses and adorned the dancers’ bodies. Some houses included dedicated healing chambers with images of Bes and Beset adorning the interior.

Context

• Archaeological findings have uncovered numerous amulets and household items bearing their images, highlighting their importance in personal and family protection.
• While major deities were worshipped in grand temples with elaborate rituals, Bes and Beset were venerated in more personal, domestic settings, highlighting their accessibility to the common people.
• Dwarfs in ancient Egypt were associated with magical powers and were often seen as intermediaries between the human and divine realms, which added to the protective aura of Bes and Beset.
• The concept of protective household deities with fearsome appearances influenced later cultures, such as the Roman Lares and Penates, who also served as guardians of the home.
• In ancient Egypt, venomous reptiles like snakes and scorpions were common threats. Deities like Bes and Beset were believed to offer protection against these dangers, reflecting the practical concerns of daily life in a largely agrarian society.
• Dreams held significant meaning in ancient Egyptian society, often seen as messages from the gods or the deceased. Protecting children from nightmares was not just about comfort but also about safeguarding them from potentially harmful spiritual messages.
• The association of Bes and Beset with healing extended beyond physical health to include mental and emotional well-being, as they were believed to protect against nightmares and psychological distress.
• Dancers in ancient Egyptian culture often participated in religious ceremonies and festivals. Their movements were thought to have spiritual significance, and adorning their bodies with protective symbols like Bes and Beset could enhance the ritual's power.
• These chambers might have been small, intimate spaces within a home, designed to create a focused environment for invoking the deities' protective powers.

Sphinxes, Kind and Malicious, Were Legendary Hybrid Creatures

The Egyptian sphinx was a being that had a lion's body, an eagle's wings, and a human head, usually male. Russo highlights the ambiguity of its character. On one hand, it was linked to the lioness deity Sekhmet and often depicted as guarding the temples, but on the other hand, there were no specific tales in the Egyptian mythology dedicated to it. It was with the Greeks that the sphinx entered a well-known myth, that of Oedipus.

According to Greek myth, sphinxes were invariably malevolent females. In the myth, she terrorized Thebes and posed riddles to every traveler entering its gates. If the traveler lacked the proper answer, she would devour them. Eventually, Oedipus solved the riddle posed by the sphinx and caused the creature's death.

There were, however, several variants of sphinxes besides the classical one. The hieracosphinx, which Herodotus described, had a hawk's head rather than a human one. It was eventually linked to Horus and appeared in European heraldry in the likeness of a griffin.

Context

• Over time, the image of the sphinx evolved, especially as it was adopted by other cultures like the Greeks, who altered its characteristics and mythology.
• Sphinxes were often placed at the entrances of temples and tombs to serve as protectors against evil spirits and to symbolize the divine protection of the sacred spaces.
• Egyptian religious practices involved rituals and offerings to deities and their representations, like the sphinx, rather than storytelling, which was a more central feature in other ancient cultures' mythologies.
• Thebes was an ancient city in Greece, known for its significant role in various Greek myths and its historical importance as a major city-state.
• The riddle symbolizes the stages of human life and the inevitability of aging and mortality, reflecting the Greek interest in human nature and destiny.
• The story of Oedipus and the sphinx is most famously recounted in Sophocles' tragedy "Oedipus Rex," which explores themes of fate, free will, and the search for truth.
• In Egyptian culture, the hawk was a symbol of royalty and the divine, often associated with the pharaohs and their connection to the gods.
• The griffin is a legendary creature with the body of a lion and the head and wings of an eagle. It is a symbol of divine power and a guardian of treasures, often appearing in various mythologies and medieval heraldry.

Unique Egyptian Mythical Beings: Aani, Nehebkau, Medjed

Russo describes other mythical beings from Egyptian myth, focusing on their possible interpretations as well as their symbolic attributes. Aani, a baboon or ape with a dog's head, was an animal companion of Thoth and was associated with wisdom and balance, reflecting traits of his godly master. Abtu and Anet, a pair of holy fish, protected the solar deity's barque during its nightly voyage through the netherworld.

Bennu, a mythical heron, was an ancient creator deity and a mythical precursor to a phoenix. It is claimed that he brought himself into being and called the universe into existence. It stands in contrast to the Christian phoenix that perished in fire to later rise again. The Bennu bird was linked to the eternity of the universe that had a definite beginning but perhaps no definite end.

Medjed represents the curious case of an enigmatic entity from a burial text, who, despite not being connected to any specific myths, attained recent popularity in Japanese anime. Nehebkau, a serpent deity, was revered for healing and protection but also as a primeval being linked to the afterlife.

Practical Tips

• Start a 'Wisdom and Balance' journal where you reflect on daily experiences through the lens of the Aani's attributes. Each night, write down situations where you needed wisdom, how you addressed them, and how you maintained or could improve balance in your life. This practice helps you become more conscious of these qualities and actively work on embodying them.
• Create a personal or family emblem that includes an animal symbol representing qualities you admire. Draw or design this emblem, and place it somewhere you'll see it daily, like on your phone's wallpaper or a fridge magnet. If you value loyalty, you might choose a dog as your emblem, reminding you to embody loyalty in your daily interactions.
• Incorporate a "duo of protectors" concept into your decision-making process. Whenever you're facing a significant decision, imagine two advisors or protectors—like Abtu and Anet—by your side, each representing different aspects of wisdom, such as logic and intuition. Jot down the advice you believe each protector would give you regarding the decision, and use this as a balanced approach to guide your choice.
• Develop a piece of artwork or craft that embodies the qualities of the Bennu for daily inspiration. Gather materials that resonate with the themes of creation and rebirth, such as feathers, stones, or recycled items. As you create your artwork, focus on imbuing it with intentions of resilience and renewal. Place the finished piece somewhere you will see it every day to remind you of your capacity for reinvention and the power of starting anew.
• Develop a 'universe box' to physically represent your goals and aspirations. Find a small box and fill it with symbols that represent different aspects of the universe you want to create for yourself, such as career success, personal well-being, or relationships. Each symbol should be a tangible reminder of your intentions, and you can add to the box as your goals evolve.
• Incorporate the concept of eternity into your daily meditation or mindfulness practice by visualizing your connection to the universe's continuity. During your sessions, imagine yourself as part of an unending cycle, like the Bennu bird, which can help foster a sense of peace and perspective. You might visualize a landscape that changes with the seasons yet remains fundamentally unchanged, symbolizing your own resilience and the timeless nature of existence.
• Start a journal where you reflect on enigmatic concepts or historical mysteries, using Medjed as a starting point. Each entry could focus on a different mystery, encouraging you to research and ponder the unknown. You might begin with Medjed and then move on to other cryptic figures or events, using this practice to enhance your critical thinking and appreciation for history's complexities.
• Design your own Medjed-inspired merchandise, such as t-shirts, stickers, or phone cases, using print-on-demand services. This allows you to express your interest in the character creatively and potentially earn some income if you decide to sell your designs.
• Incorporate the concept of Nehebkau into a bedtime routine for peaceful sleep and connection to the afterlife. Before sleeping, spend a few minutes meditating on the attributes of Nehebkau, envisioning the serpent as a guardian that wards off negative thoughts and brings tranquility, potentially enhancing your sense of connection to something greater than yourself.

Mortal Figures and Historical Narratives in Myths of Egypt

Djoser and Imhotep, Deified Mortals; Imhotep Became a Healing God

Djoser, who led the Third Dynasty, was the first king of the Old Kingdom and initiated the construction of the earliest step pyramid during his reign, which, according to Russo, lasted for almost 30 years. His advisor, Imhotep, was likely the person who designed it. Few other details exist about Djoser's experiences.

However, Imhotep was deified after his death, which is a striking contrast to how little is understood about him as a mortal. His immense contribution to the construction of Djoser’s pyramid led later Egyptians to venerate him as a healing deity, even equating him to Thoth. The Greek people, when they came in contact with the Imhotep cult, equated him to their own healing god, Asclepius.

Russo lists all the myths that sprung up around Imhotep, stating that the deified vizier was purportedly Ptah's offspring, explained dreams, and brought an end to a famine. Some stories claim Imhotep manifested to heal people suffering from different conditions. Russo is doubtful that all of these accounts are accurate, but he states that Imhotep as he was must have achieved remarkable things to earn such posthumous adoration.

Context

• Djoser's reign is often credited with significant advancements in administration, architecture, and religious practices, laying the groundwork for the prosperity of the Old Kingdom.
• As a vizier, Imhotep held a position of great influence and responsibility, overseeing not only architectural projects but also administrative and religious duties, which contributed to his lasting legacy.
• Deification was more common in the later periods of Egyptian history, particularly during the Ptolemaic and Roman periods, when the blending of Greek and Egyptian cultures was prevalent.
• In both Greek and Egyptian cultures, temples dedicated to healing gods like Asclepius and Imhotep served as centers for medical treatment and spiritual healing, where people would seek cures for their ailments through rituals and offerings.
• Ptah was a creator god in ancient Egyptian religion, often associated with craftsmen and builders. He was believed to have created the world through thought and word, making him a significant deity in the pantheon.
• Over time, stories about historical figures can become exaggerated. Imhotep's legendary status likely grew as stories of his wisdom and healing powers were passed down through generations, leading to mythologized accounts of his life.

Khufu, Enigmatic and Powerful Builder of the Massive Pyramid

Russo argues that Khufu is the ruler whose reign is most obscured by the monumentality of his construction project, the Giza Great Pyramid. He ruled for more than 20 years, but as Russo explains, most stories about Khufu that we have now were written down over 2000 years after his death.

The author focuses predominantly on Khufu’s pyramid instead of the person behind it. Khufu’s pyramid was monumental for its era and for ours as well. Its immense size testifies to the ingenuity and organizational skills of Egyptian society. Khufu's burial complex, the surrounding necropolis, housed not only his resting place but also the graves of his immediate family as well as the mastabas of other officials and members of the court.

As with Imhotep, Khufu’s historical legacy is overshadowed by legends that represent him as both a harsh tyrant and a just and generous king. Ironically, despite what Herodotus had to say about him, Khufu was remembered fondly by the Egyptians centuries later. His cult spread all across the country, and he emerged as a benevolent figure in many tales and stories.

Context

• The term "necropolis" means "city of the dead" in Greek. It refers to a large, ancient cemetery with elaborate tomb monuments. The Giza necropolis is one of the most significant in Egypt.

Other Perspectives

• The stories written down after such a long period could have been based on earlier written sources that have since been lost to history.
• The stories and legends about Khufu that have survived may be influenced by the pyramid, suggesting that the monument and the man are inextricably linked in historical memory.
• The emphasis on the pyramid's monumental nature could perpetuate a Eurocentric perspective that values large, physical structures over other forms of cultural significance that may have been more valued by the Egyptians themselves.
• The depiction of Khufu as both a harsh tyrant and a just and generous king may not necessarily overshadow his historical legacy but rather provide a more nuanced understanding of his rule, reflecting the complexity of his leadership and the diverse perspectives of ancient Egyptians.
• The spread of Khufu's cult and positive tales could be a result of state-sponsored propaganda to legitimize the ruling class by glorifying ancestors.

Ahmose-Nefertari, Amenhotep I Worshiped as Patron Deities

Ahmose-Nefertari, spouse of Ahmose I, who established the Eighteenth Dynasty, was the first queen to bear the title of "God's Wife" and a mother of many children, including the later pharaoh, Amenhotep I. Russo describes her as a powerful maternal figure who might have also served as regent during her son's early years of his reign.

According to Russo, Ahmose-Nefertari held such significance for the Egyptians that she was deified after her death as a patron goddess of the pharaoh’s family and, by extension, of the whole Eighteenth Dynasty. Ahmose-Nefertari's child, Amenhotep I, wasn't intended to be a king of Egypt, but due to the deaths of his older brothers, he inherited the throne. Amenhotep I was a determined ruler who waged campaigns against the Nubians and also oversaw a period of cultural flourishing. During his time as ruler, the initial water clock was invented, and there were also important works on medicine and religious practices.

Similarly to his mother, Amenhotep I became divine after he died. He became a protector of artisans and workers, especially those inhabiting the village of Deir el-Medina, which Amenhotep ordered to be built. There, oracles were established for individuals to seek answers regarding their destinies.

Context

• The Eighteenth Dynasty saw numerous advancements, including the development of new technologies, artistic styles, and religious practices, which were often attributed to the divine favor and wisdom of the ruling pharaohs.
• While direct evidence of her regency is limited, the strong matrilineal traditions and the reverence for Ahmose-Nefertari in later periods suggest she played a significant role in governance during her son's early reign.
• The deification of Ahmose-Nefertari reflects the Egyptian belief in the afterlife and the continuation of influence beyond death. It was believed that deified individuals could intercede on behalf of the living, providing protection and guidance.
• Inheriting the throne unexpectedly might have influenced Amenhotep I's policies and priorities. He may have felt a strong need to prove his legitimacy and capability as a ruler, which could explain his military campaigns and cultural initiatives.
• The invention of the water clock, or clepsydra, during Amenhotep I's reign was significant for timekeeping in religious and civil activities, marking an advancement in Egyptian science and technology.
• This was a village built to house the artisans and workers who constructed the royal tombs in the Valley of the Kings. It was a unique community with a high literacy rate, and its inhabitants were skilled craftsmen.
• Deir el-Medina is one of the best-preserved examples of an ancient Egyptian village, providing valuable insights into daily life, social organization, and the religious practices of its inhabitants.
• In ancient Egypt, oracles were a means of communication with the divine. They were often consulted for guidance on personal and communal matters, providing answers believed to be from the gods.

Hatshepsut: Pioneering Female Pharaoh Facing Post-Reign Opposition

Hatshepsut, the second woman to become pharaoh, reigned over Egypt for roughly two decades. Russo describes her time as ruler as both unprecedented and triumphant. Before Cleopatra, no other woman in Egypt's ancient past held more power. She skillfully took over as ruler instead of Thutmose III, a young man chosen by her spouse and sibling Thutmose II to become a future Egyptian leader.

Hatshepsut's rule was marked by prosperity and stability. She ordered numerous construction initiatives, with the most impressive one being her mortuary temple, featuring a magnificent pillar colonnade and multiple terraced levels adorned with elaborate gardens. She also supervised the building of temples and obelisks dedicated to her honor. Russo points to Hatshepsut's skillful use of propaganda and her ties with powerful leaders, along with the priests of Amun as the source of her political stability. Some legends even attribute her parentage to the god Amun, fathering her with the pharaoh's spouse.

Russo remarks that toward the end of Thutmose III’s rule (who was Hatshepsut’s successor) and later in Amenhotep II's, attempts were made to remove any trace of Hatshepsut. Her identity was chiseled off of monuments, and sculptures were demolished and hidden. There are many potential explanations for this erasure: Maybe Thutmose was bitter for being denied the throne for so long; perhaps Amenhotep II was trying to undermine the previous ruler's authority in order to strengthen his own.

Russo suggests that Hatshepsut’s rule may have posed a threat to other kings. The author notes that previously, women became pharaohs only during challenging times for Egypt. Hatshepsut, however, was a capable leader who enjoyed popularity and brought peace and stability.

Context

• She was a strong supporter of the cult of Amun, and her reign saw the increased prominence of this deity, which helped legitimize her rule and secure the support of powerful religious factions.
• Women in ancient Egypt could hold significant power, but it was rare for them to become pharaoh. They often wielded influence as queen consorts or regents, especially when male heirs were too young to rule.
• To legitimize her rule, Hatshepsut often depicted herself in traditional male pharaoh attire and claimed divine birth, asserting that the god Amun was her father. This religious narrative helped solidify her position.
• Although her reign was largely peaceful, Hatshepsut maintained a strong military presence, which deterred potential invasions and ensured internal security.
• By commissioning grand construction projects, Hatshepsut reinforced her status and legitimacy as pharaoh. Such projects were a way to demonstrate wealth, power, and divine favor.
• Obelisks were tall, four-sided, narrow tapering monuments which ended in a pyramid-like shape at the top. They were typically erected in pairs at the entrances of temples and were believed to be connected to the sun god Ra, symbolizing a ray of sunlight.
• In ancient Egypt, pharaohs often used propaganda to legitimize their rule. This included commissioning art and inscriptions that depicted them as chosen by the gods, victorious in battle, or as bringers of prosperity. Such imagery was crucial in maintaining the divine status of the pharaoh and ensuring loyalty among the populace.
• The erasure might reflect cultural perceptions of legitimacy and continuity, where maintaining a consistent narrative of male leadership was deemed essential for the stability of the state.
• Thutmose III and Amenhotep II may have sought to emphasize their own dynastic legitimacy by downplaying Hatshepsut's reign, which was an anomaly in the male-dominated line of succession.
• Her reign was marked by significant economic prosperity and cultural achievements, including extensive trade expeditions, such as the famous voyage to Punt, which brought wealth and exotic goods to Egypt, further solidifying her successful rule.

Akhenaten, Nefertiti, Tutankhamun: Religious Revolution & Restoration

The author points to the revolution instituted by Akhenaten as among the most difficult events to interpret in the history of ancient Egypt. Akhenaten initially became king with the same reverence to traditions as his ancestors. Russo observes that it was only slowly, over the initial five years of his rule, that Akhenaten started building more temples to Aten, the sun disk deity, until, finally, he declared Aten to be the only god and changed the capital of Egypt to a newly built city, Akhenaten (Amarna).

Russo highlights the innovative, lifelike style of art that developed during Akhenaten’s reign. It depicted people in motion and with realistic facial expressions, unlike the earlier stylization of art from Egypt. The author states that these changes, along with Akhenaten's androgynous appearance in art, led to numerous theories as to the possible reasons for the revolution.

Akhenaten's wife, Nefertiti, also assumes a significant position while he ruled. Initially, she appeared alongside Akhenaten as a queen, but later in his rule, it seems that her role grew to a co-ruler. Russo suggests that it is possible that she even became pharaoh following Akhenaten's death, presenting as a male. Whatever might have happened, it was Akhenaten’s son Tutankhamun who brought the old ways back, destroyed all the temples dedicated to Aten, and reinstated the veneration of the full pantheon.

Context

• Akhenaten's reign and religious reforms were largely erased from historical records by his successors, who viewed his changes as heretical, leading to a period of historical obscurity for his reign.
• The Amarna art style, which emerged during this period, broke from the rigid and formal artistic conventions of earlier Egyptian art, emphasizing naturalism and movement.
• The city was designed with open-air temples to allow sunlight, which was central to Aten worship. The architecture reflected the new religious ideology, emphasizing openness and light.
• The androgynous depictions of Akhenaten and the exaggerated features in the art have led to various interpretations, including theories about his physical appearance or symbolic representations of his unique religious role.
• Nefertiti's potential co-regency might have been a strategic move to stabilize Akhenaten's religious changes, providing continuity and support for his monotheistic revolution.
• Some inscriptions and artifacts suggest a female ruler during the period between Akhenaten and Tutankhamun, supporting the theory that Nefertiti may have assumed the throne.
• As Tutankhamun was very young when he became pharaoh, his advisors, including the influential vizier Ay and the general Horemheb, likely played key roles in the decision to restore the traditional religious practices.
• By dismantling the Aten temples, Tutankhamun aimed to stabilize the kingdom and regain the support of powerful priesthoods and officials who had been marginalized during Akhenaten's reign.