PDF Summary:Turn Right at Machu Picchu, by Mark Adams

Hiram Bingham's name has become synonymous with the rediscovery of the ancient Incan city of Machu Picchu. In Turn Right at Machu Picchu, Mark Adams recounts Bingham's expeditions to Peru in the early 20th century which culminated in his dramatic discovery of this lost city shrouded by forest. Adams explores the mysteries surrounding Machu Picchu's purpose, construction, and abandonment—and traces Bingham's footsteps to see the site himself and gain a deeper appreciation for the enduring appeal of this enigmatic place.

The quest to understand Machu Picchu unfolds as Adams encounters the modern-day challenges of preservation amid environmental changes since Bingham's time. Through personal anecdotes and historical research, Adams brings Bingham's tale to life while plunging the reader into debates over who truly uncovered Machu Picchu and what led to its rediscovery by the outside world.

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Accusations depicted Bingham as a looter who violated the sanctity of historical sites in Peru.

The controversy surrounding the extraction of relics from Peru has somewhat overshadowed his acknowledgment as the person who brought Machu Picchu to worldwide attention. Eliane Karp-Toledo, previously holding the position of Peru's premier lady, strongly accuses Bingham of grave robbing and argues that he improperly took away thousands of priceless artifacts from the country. In 2008, she began a legal battle that received considerable attention, demanding that Yale University return the artifacts that Bingham had excavated and taken to New Haven. Yale representatives argued that Bingham had received permission from Peruvian authorities to relocate the artifacts and that he followed standard protocols for distributing the discoveries.

The relics that Bingham discovered were eventually repatriated to Peru after some time had passed since his original discovery.

In 2011, marking the 100-year anniversary of Bingham's revelation of Machu Picchu to the world, Yale agreed to return most of the contested artifacts to Peru, an aspect that Adams emphasizes in his recounting of the extended legal battle concerning the Bingham collection. The agreement was finalized after extensive negotiations and broad support from scholars, government representatives, and the local populations of both countries. The items will be relocated to a recently inaugurated museum and study center in Cusco, which pays tribute to Bingham's original promise to return specific artifacts when asked.

Bingham played a pivotal role in shaping public understanding and perception of the ancient Incan city.

Public fascination with the site increased significantly due to the comprehensive descriptions provided by Bingham and the attention it received from a prominent geographic magazine.

The writer emphasizes how Bingham's articles in a prominent publication significantly ignited global fascination with Machu Picchu. Prior to Bingham's revelation of his discoveries and photographs, Machu Picchu was largely unknown to individuals outside Peru. The tale of Bingham's explorations captivated the public when it was elaborately presented in a National Geographic article from April 1913, which bore the title "In the Wonderland of Peru." The structural magnificence of the ruins and the stunning allure of the nearby landscape were immortalized in his photographs. Bingham depicted Machu Picchu as a mysterious metropolis that vanished from documented history, only to be unearthed later.

Bingham's unexpected impact resulted in the creation of the iconic figure known as Indiana Jones.

Adams depicts Bingham's work as inadvertently shaping an iconic character in popular culture, embodied by the intrepid explorer synonymous with Indiana Jones. The publication of Bingham's acclaimed work, "Lost City of the Incas," served as the muse for the 1954 cinematic adventure "Secret of the Incas," which in turn greatly influenced the creation of the legendary Indiana Jones persona, as acknowledged by the creators of "Raiders of the Lost Ark." Bingham, an academic with a passion for archaeology, ventured into uncharted territories in search of relics from ancient societies and was often depicted in photographs adopting the stance of an explorer, donning a fedora.

Other Perspectives

• The Epoch of Adventurous Expeditions was not solely defined by explorers like Bingham, as it also included significant scientific, cultural, and political developments of the era.
• The age of daring exploration often romanticizes the exploits of explorers without adequately acknowledging the negative impacts on indigenous cultures and environments.
• The achievements of Amundsen and Peary have been scrutinized, with some questioning the accuracy of Peary's claim to have reached the North Pole.
• Bingham's self-marketing may have overshadowed the contributions of local guides and the knowledge of indigenous people regarding Machu Picchu.
• The claim that Bingham was the first to discover Machu Picchu is contested by evidence that locals knew of its existence and other explorers had visited the site.
• The narrative of Bingham as a looter is complex; some argue that his actions should be viewed in the context of the time, when the removal of artifacts for study was more commonly accepted.
• The repatriation of relics to Peru was a positive step, but it also raises questions about the fate of artifacts from other cultures still held in foreign institutions.
• While Bingham helped shape public understanding of Machu Picchu, his interpretations and narratives were influenced by his own cultural biases and may not accurately reflect the history and significance of the site to the indigenous people.
• The increase in public fascination with Machu Picchu following Bingham's publications also led to tourism that has threatened the preservation of the site.
• The inspiration for Indiana Jones, while culturally significant, perpetuates a stereotype of the treasure-hunting archaeologist that professionals in the field often work to dispel.

The enigmatic allure and significance of Machu Picchu.

Machu Picchu's extraordinary feats of engineering and architecture

The Incas' mastery in stone construction and their architectural expertise

Machu Picchu is renowned worldwide for its extraordinary architectural and engineering achievements. Upon his first encounter with the site, Bingham viewed the stonework as being on par with the finest instances of similar craftsmanship around the world. The Inca builders demonstrated remarkable skill by meticulously shaping and fitting massive granite stones together without relying on any bonding agent. The stones are fitted together with such exactness that it's impossible to slide even the thinnest blade into the gaps. The ancient inhabitants of the Andes excelled in a building technique called ashlar masonry, which led to the creation of edifices that were not only striking in appearance but also remarkably resistant to the region's common seismic activity. The designers also implemented methods to reduce ecological footprint by establishing organic water evacuation networks.

The precise arrangement and orientation of Machu Picchu's buildings.

The designers of Machu Picchu intentionally planned and organized its architectural components. The native Andean builders skillfully integrated their structures with the surrounding landscape, taking into account the interplay of light and shadow as well as the positions of celestial bodies. The meticulously constructed Temple of the Three Windows welcomed the dawn. An intricate network of channels skillfully carved conveyed water from natural springs throughout the region, ultimately converging at ritualistic water features. The Intihuatana stone, a prominent element of Machu Picchu, is thought to have functioned as a solar clock, aligned with the summits of sacred peaks. Machu Picchu is an extraordinary testament to how the Inca civilization harmoniously blended their religious beliefs with their knowledge of astronomical cycles and the environment.

Numerous theories have been proposed regarding the importance of Machu Picchu.

Scholars persist in debating Machu Picchu's initial function, suggesting it might have been a private haven for nobility or served a purpose that diverges significantly from that of a holy place.

The precise importance and function of Machu Picchu continue to be subjects of debate, igniting various hypotheses and ongoing dialogue. Subsequent research has challenged the assertion that Hiram Bingham was the first to come across Vilcabamba, the final stronghold of Inca resistance, and Tampu Tocco, the esteemed location associated with the inception of the Inca empire. Modern scholars have contemplated different hypotheses, including the idea that Machu Picchu was an exclusive hideaway for nobility, a hallowed place for sun worship, or a sanctuary for those on a spiritual quest, or perhaps a combination of these functions. Understanding Inca society is challenging because they left no written records.

Machu Picchu serves as a testament to the Inca's profound understanding of geography, cosmology, and celestial patterns.

The author delves into discoveries indicating that the architectural styles of the Incas were shaped by their knowledge of astronomical configurations and their profound respect for the sacred peaks. Renowned scholar Johan Reinhard, who has written a comprehensive analysis of the sacred site, argues that Machu Picchu holds deep spiritual importance, situated at a nexus of significant earthly and celestial alignments. At the summit of Machu Picchu, a stone has been placed in such a way that it creates a straight alignment with Huayna Picchu to the south, and this alignment continues directly towards Salcantay, which is considered the most sacred spirit in Incan mythology. The site is flanked by highly revered peaks to the east and west. The Urubamba River curves dramatically around the protrusion that forms the base upon which Machu Picchu is situated. The location was chosen by the ancient civilization for its deep spiritual and astronomical significance.

Machu Picchu remains enveloped in enduring mysteries.

Questions linger regarding why it was deserted and subsequently "rediscovered."

The mystery of Machu Picchu stems from the considerable insights that are yet to be discovered regarding this age-old landmark. Historians are still puzzled by the circumstances that led to the abandonment of Machu Picchu by the Inca civilization. This site seems to have evaded alteration during the Spanish incursion, in contrast to Vitcos and Vilcabamba, which succumbed to the invaders. Several hypotheses suggest that epidemics, internal conflicts, or a deliberate retreat to an alternative fortress could explain the situation. The individual responsible for reintroducing the site to public awareness remains an enigma. Bingham is acknowledged for introducing Machu Picchu to contemporary consciousness, with Peru officially acknowledging him as the one who scientifically discovered the site. The indigenous people were cognizant of this location before it became known to outsiders.

Ongoing studies in the fields of archaeology and anthropology are constantly uncovering more about its historical relevance and meaning.

Our understanding of the historical narrative, the people who lived at Machu Picchu, and their advanced building techniques is constantly deepened by current archaeological research and excavations. Recent archaeological digs at Espiritu Pampa have reinforced the view that this site, rather than Machu Picchu, served as the final bastion for Manco Inca. Archaeological discoveries, although not providing answers to all of Machu Picchu's mysteries, enhance our comprehension of the site's significance and its lasting allure.

Other Perspectives

• While the Incas' stone construction is indeed impressive, some argue that similar or even more advanced techniques were used by other ancient civilizations, such as the Egyptians or Romans.
• The claim that no bonding agents were used in the construction may be contested by some researchers who suggest that, while not visible, organic materials might have been used to aid the fitting of stones.
• The resistance of Machu Picchu's structures to seismic activity is remarkable, but it's worth noting that other ancient civilizations also developed seismic-resistant construction methods.
• The idea that Machu Picchu was a private retreat for nobility is one of several theories, and there is evidence to suggest it may have also been a religious center or a site of administrative importance.
• The interpretation of the Intihuatana stone and other features as astronomical instruments is debated among scholars, with some suggesting these may have had multiple uses or different significance than commonly believed.
• The notion that Machu Picchu was abandoned due to epidemics or conflict is just one of many theories, and there is no definitive evidence to conclusively support any single reason for its abandonment.
• The claim that Hiram Bingham "rediscovered" Machu Picchu is contested by the fact that local indigenous people were aware of its existence and it was not truly lost to those living in the region.
• Ongoing research is indeed deepening our understanding of Machu Picchu, but it's important to acknowledge that much of the site's history may remain unknown due to the lack of written records and the destruction of many Inca artifacts and sites during the Spanish conquest.

The author traced the route once navigated by Bingham, taking into account the changing landscapes and environments.

Mark Adams' lack of experience in wild expeditions stood in sharp contrast to Bingham's fervent enthusiasm for exploration.

The author's unease stemmed from concerns about high altitudes, a multitude of insects, and the presence of untamed wildlife.

Adams acknowledges his lack of expertise in wild adventures, describing his method as more tentative and not as vigorous compared to that of the explorer Bingham, while also sharing his concerns about the potential challenges and dangers he might face. Throughout his career, he had entrusted the task of recounting tales of bold adventures to different individuals, yet he now discovered himself venturing out of his comfort zone to traverse uncharted territories. The author expresses his apprehension about the high-altitude environment, the threat posed by various insects and dangerous wildlife, as well as the significant exertion required to traverse the challenging terrain he planned to investigate. Adams' lack of knowledge on the topic not only adds comedic elements to the narrative but also highlights his growing respect for the extraordinary feats achieved by Bingham.

The writer initially struggled to acclimate to the rigorous physical requirements that the trek necessitated.

In his account, Adams openly discusses the early difficulties he encountered while getting used to the rigorous requirements of the path. He wrestles with what he describes as the relaxed attitude towards time management that typifies the inhabitants of the area. In his attempt to follow Bingham's route to Choquequirao, he experiences significant discomfort due to his choice of inappropriate socks, a humorous detail that underscores his lack of familiarity with exploration. While dining in a Cusco restaurant surrounded by the city's historic Inca foundations, Adams was captivated by the age-old masonry, and his guide, John Leivers, was surprised by the exorbitant price of the soup.

The author's growing respect for Bingham's achievements and the ancient sites built by the Incas became more and more evident.

The breathtaking scenery of the Andes and the profound sense of isolation in the wilderness deeply affected the author.

During his travels, Adams' amazement grew as he discovered the concealed traces of the Inca legacy scattered throughout the vast wilderness of the Peruvian Andes. He recounts his awe-inspiring journey to Choquequirao, where he is captivated by the grandeur of mountains and the chill of glaciers, an experience that echoes the deep appreciation for the landscape that Bingham's narrative imparts. Traveling along the Inca Trail, he was struck by the range of landscapes it meandered through, from awe-inspiring glacial peaks to verdant foliage, and pondered the way this environmental diversity could have deepened the religious experience for pilgrims. The author's appreciation for the area's splendor and awe is intensified by the shifting illumination, as well as the magnificence of the sacred mountains and the diverse array of plant and animal life.

The writer's understanding deepened about the mysteries and significance surrounding Machu Picchu.

In his quest to understand Machu Picchu, Adams engages with various theories, seeks insights from archaeology specialists, faces the challenges of navigating the mountain terrain, and enhances his understanding, yet continues to be perplexed by the site's mysterious elements. In conversations with his guide, John Leivers, Adams expresses skepticism about the importance of celestial events like the positioning of the solstitial sun and how it relates to the orientation of ancient communities in the Andes. During his travels, Adams develops a deep appreciation for the way the Incas harmonized their religious beliefs with their construction techniques, observing the precise alignment of sunlight, the terrain's contours, and architectural design at sites like Llactapata and the Torreon.

The environment around Machu Picchu is in a state of continuous change.

Since Bingham's time, the glaciers in the vicinity have markedly diminished.

The author remarks on the considerable changes to the landscape and vistas of Machu Picchu compared to the time of Bingham, particularly emphasizing the marked reduction in the size of the glaciers in the Andes. Adams documents John Muir's observations from the late 19th century, noting the rapid retreat of glaciers in Alaska's Glacier Bay, which underscores that such environmental changes were noted before global warming became a widely recognized concern. Adams observed the environmental transformations that Muir once witnessed in Alaska, which mirror those in the Andean region of Peru, emphasizing how the retreat of glaciers affects both the water supplies and the ecosystems around Machu Picchu. These changes underscore the fragility of the environment.

The possible impacts of environmental changes on the future of the Machu Picchu region.

The escalating impacts of climate change contribute to more frequent landslides and floods, transforming ecosystems and threatening nearby populations, and also endanger the continued existence of the iconic Machu Picchu site. Adams emphasizes the considerable challenges involved in preserving the site's authenticity for the enjoyment of posterity. The increase in tourist numbers and the growth of facilities have added to the complexities, each element attracted by the magnetic charm of Machu Picchu. The author suggests that understanding the deep connection and harmonious relationship the Incas had with the Andean landscape could be crucial for the preservation of Machu Picchu.

Other Perspectives

• While Adams may have lacked experience in wild expeditions, this perspective could offer a fresh and relatable viewpoint for readers who are not seasoned explorers themselves.
• Concerns about high altitudes, insects, and wildlife are common among travelers, but these challenges can often be mitigated with proper preparation and guidance.
• Struggling to acclimate to the physical requirements of a trek is a natural part of the process, and overcoming these challenges can be seen as a testament to human resilience and adaptability.
• Respect for Bingham's achievements and Inca sites is commendable, but it's also important to recognize the contributions of local communities and other explorers who have preserved these areas and contributed to our understanding of them.
• The deep effect of the Andean scenery and isolation on Adams is subjective; others might find these conditions invigorating or inspiring rather than daunting.
• Adams' deepened understanding of Machu Picchu's mysteries is a personal journey; alternative interpretations and theories from other scholars could provide a broader context or different insights.
• The environment around Machu Picchu is indeed changing, but it's also worth considering the efforts being made to adapt to and mitigate these changes, such as conservation and sustainable tourism practices.
• The significant diminishment of glaciers near Machu Picchu is a concern, but it also opens up discussions about climate change and the importance of global environmental stewardship.
• The threats to Machu Picchu's future and nearby populations due to environmental changes are real, yet there may be innovative solutions and strategies being developed to address these challenges that are not mentioned in the text.