PDF Summary:The Last Days of the Incas, by Kim MacQuarrie

In The Last Days of the Incas, Kim MacQuarrie takes readers on a vivid journey through the rise and fall of the Incan Empire. He chronicles the meteoric rise of the Inca dynasty, from its humble origins in the Cuzco valley to controlling a vast territory stretching from Colombia to Chile. MacQuarrie provides an up-close look at the powerful Inca leaders who shaped the empire, including Pachacuti's legendary conquests and Huayna Capac's efforts to integrate non-state tribes.

The author then turns to the tumultuous years after the Spanish arrival, detailing Pizarro's calculated strategy of using Atahualpa as a hostage to gain control. MacQuarrie recounts the violent clashes, rebellions by Manco Inca, and power struggles that led to the empire's downfall. In the modern era, he takes readers on the rediscovery of the "lost cities" of the Incas, such as Machu Picchu and Vilcabamba.

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Manipulating Atahualpa to Expand Spanish Control and Extract Wealth

MacQuarrie clarifies that Pizarro's objectives were both simple and ruthless. The author recounts how Pizarro was able to leverage his control over Atahualpa into gaining control of the Inca state. By controlling Atahualpa, Pizarro essentially held the whole Incan state hostage. This strategy allowed Pizarro to essentially hold sway over millions of people with fewer than 200 Spaniards. It also allowed him to extort a massive amount of gold and silver from the Incas, which Pizarro then used to pay political debts to the Spanish king as well as to ensure the loyalty of his fellow conquistadors.

Practical Tips

• Apply ruthlessness to your decision-making by setting a 'no exceptions' rule for one week. Choose an area of your life where you tend to be indecisive or lenient and for one week, make decisions swiftly and stick to them without wavering. If you're trying to improve your diet, decide that for this week, you will not consume any junk food, and stick to that rule no matter the circumstances.
• Use leverage in negotiations by offering something of unique value to the other party. Think about what you can provide that they can't easily get elsewhere, similar to how Pizarro had control over something the Incas valued. For instance, if you're a freelancer, you might have a rare skill or insight into a niche market that a potential client needs. Highlight this in your pitch and negotiations to increase your bargaining power.
• Identify key influencers in your workplace to foster a supportive network. Just as Pizarro understood the influence of Atahualpa, you can map out the informal power structure in your office. Start by observing who people turn to for advice and who seems to sway opinions in meetings. Build genuine relationships with these individuals by offering your help on projects or inviting them for a coffee chat to discuss industry trends.
• Leverage the power of storytelling to influence a small team to achieve big goals. By crafting a compelling narrative around your project or goal, you can inspire a sense of purpose and mission in your team members. For example, if you're leading a project at work, create a story that highlights the potential impact of the project on the company or the community, making each team member feel like a crucial part of a grand adventure.
• Volunteer with an organization that works to preserve cultural heritage. By engaging in activities that help protect the legacies of indigenous communities, you can gain a deeper appreciation for the value of cultural artifacts and the importance of respecting the history and rights of all cultures. This hands-on experience can provide a personal connection to the historical narrative and foster a sense of responsibility towards cultural preservation.
• Apply the concept of resource allocation from history to your budgeting strategy. Imagine your income as a treasure trove and assign portions to different 'political allies' in your life, such as savings, debt repayment, and personal development. This could mean setting up automatic transfers to a savings account, making extra payments on loans, or investing in courses that enhance your skills.
• Create a loyalty program for your small business customers. Taking inspiration from the concept of rewarding for loyalty, design a simple punch card or points system where customers accumulate rewards for repeat purchases. This could be as straightforward as a free product after a certain number of purchases or a discount on their next buy. It's a way to show appreciation and encourage ongoing patronage.

The “Requirement” and Legitimizing Plunder

MacQuarrie points out that Pizarro—unlike Cortés in his war on the Aztecs—was careful to carry with him a royal permit from the Spanish monarchs allowing the plunder and takeover of the Incan Empire. As a devout Catholic, Pizarro ensured that he followed Spain’s legally sanctioned procedures, a crucial step being reciting a document called the Requerimiento to any Indigenous rulers who were captured.

How Pizarro Used the Requirement to Justify Seizing Inca Lands and Peoples

MacQuarrie reveals the irony within the Requerimiento, or the "Requirement." This was a document drawn up by Spanish lawyers and religious scholars that was read out loud by Spanish notaries, often in the captive’s presence. The Requirement’s authors, in an effort to provide some measure of legal justification—or at least pretext—for carrying out the capture and plunder of native leaders, had created a document that was both illogical and deeply hypocritical. The only problem was that neither Atahualpa—nor any other native leader in the New World—had a clue as to what the hell the Requirement’s authors were talking about and thus—by simply not understanding the finer points of Spain's jurisprudence and Catholic theology—forfeited their rights to their freedom, property, and lives.

Practical Tips

• Use the concept of the Requerimiento to analyze current legal or policy documents in your community or workplace. Identify the underlying values and assumptions in these documents and write a reflective critique or alternative version that aligns with your own principles. This exercise can help you understand the impact of official documents on society and empower you to advocate for changes that reflect your values.
• You can explore the impact of historical declarations by creating a modern-day "Requerimiento" for a cause you're passionate about. Write a declaration that outlines the rights and responsibilities of those involved, and share it on social media to start a conversation about the importance of clear communication in advocacy.
• Create a blog or podcast series that explores historical events from a legal perspective, focusing on how laws were used to justify certain actions. This will help you and your audience understand the impact of legal frameworks on historical outcomes. For instance, you could discuss the legal justifications used during colonial times and draw parallels with current international law practices.
• Volunteer for a local debate club or critical thinking workshop as a participant. These environments are designed to challenge your reasoning skills and help you spot fallacies in arguments, including your own. By actively engaging in debates and receiving feedback, you can improve your ability to communicate logically and coherently.
• Practice active listening in conversations with people from different backgrounds, focusing on understanding their perspective without imposing your own preconceptions. This mirrors the need for the Spanish to have genuinely listened to Atahualpa's responses. You could start by asking open-ended questions and repeating back what you've heard to ensure you've understood correctly.
• You can protect your rights by learning the legal language of any contract or agreement you enter. When you sign up for services, take out loans, or enter into any legal agreements, make sure to read the fine print and seek clarification on any terms you don't understand. For example, before agreeing to a new phone contract, research common terms used in telecom agreements and ask the provider to explain any clauses that could impact your rights as a consumer.

Atahualpa’s Ransom

MacQuarrie explains how—after having been informed by Pizarro through an interpreter that if he refused to submit to the Spaniards, his own kingdom would be taken over and he himself would be killed—Atahualpa, unable to believe that such a small band of foreigners could possibly take over such a vast empire, watched as the Spanish notaries read the Requirement in Spanish before a mostly indifferent audience of Inca nobles. The monarch likely smiled smugly, thinking to himself that no one other than he could order these people to do anything.

Gold and Silver Artifacts: Converted Into Spanish Capital

MacQuarrie makes this point clear: The Spanish valued Inca goods only as resources used to create Spanish capital. Through a process of conquest, confiscation, refining, melting, and then shipment abroad, the wealth of an empire would soon be flowing into Spain: the Spanish king—in exchange for granting Pizarro a license—agreed to receive 20 percent of the proceeds. For Spain's monarchy, this was truly an investment worth making, for it allowed them to reap the profits from the conquest and exploitation of an empire, one that cost them nothing to conquer.

Context

• The "royal fifth" (quinto real) was a tax levied by the Spanish crown, requiring that 20% of all wealth acquired in the New World be sent back to Spain. This policy ensured that the monarchy benefited directly from colonial conquests.
• The extraction of wealth, including the melting down of artifacts, led to the destruction of indigenous cultures and economies, as their resources were repurposed to benefit the Spanish Crown.
• While the immediate financial gains were substantial, the influx of precious metals eventually contributed to inflation in Spain, known as the "Price Revolution," affecting the broader European economy.

Inca Resistance, Rebellion, and the Empire's Fall

MacQuarrie makes it clear that although Spain’s invasion and conquest of the Inca effectively destroyed their dominion in a matter of only a few years, the Spaniards were nevertheless always fearful of a potential native uprising. The Inca elite, after all, had once ruled a multinational empire, one that had extended for thousands of miles and included an enormous population and an army with a force of hundreds of thousands of warriors. While the Spanish captured Atahualpa, that was primarily due to their superior weaponry. Once Manco Inca replaced his murdered brother in Cuzco, however, the Spaniards realized that the vast majority of the Inca realm had never been conquered and that Inca armies—properly led—were still much larger than their own.

Manco Inca: A Puppet King

MacQuarrie makes this clear: Pizarro was not interested in sharing power with the Inca aristocracy—he merely intended to exploit the Inca ruling class to help him consolidate Spanish control of the empire. Yet, Pizarro and his officers never grasped the nature of Manco’s situation. Manco, naturally, was the legitimate Inca ruler. As such, he was a god descended from the sun and possessed an authority within Inca society that Pizarro, despite his titles, could never have.

Spaniards' Installation of a Fresh Monarch Fractures the Incan Leadership

The author explains how Spain’s strategy of installing puppet Inca kings to control their empire was a standard colonial tactic. What the Spaniards failed to take into account, however, was the inherent nature of Inca political system. Dynastic rivalries between competing factions were commonplace. Nothing prevented such struggles from occurring while the Spanish were in charge. Because of these continuing struggles, and despite a shared interest in resisting Spanish occupation, the Inca upper class—ironically and with support from the invaders—now further fragmented into competing factions.

Context

• Similar strategies were used in other parts of the world, such as the British in India, where local princes were often kept in power under British supervision to maintain control over vast territories.
• The Incas believed in the divine right of their rulers, which added a religious dimension to political rivalries, as each faction claimed legitimacy through divine favor.
• Despite the presence of Spanish forces, various Inca factions continued to resist colonial rule, sometimes aligning with or against the puppet rulers depending on their interests.
• The Spanish pushed for the conversion of indigenous leaders to Christianity, which could create divisions between those who converted and those who resisted.

Manco Inca's Revolt and Attack on Cuzco

MacQuarrie explains how, despite years of trying to rule in alliance with the Spaniards, Manco Inca ultimately rebelled in 1536—deciding that he would be better off at war with the Spaniards than living under their oppressive rule: he had been taken prisoner in 1535 and his principal wife—who was also his sister—had been stolen from him. Manco soon mobilized his troops and marched upon the capital of Cuzco, surrounding the city.

Spanish Decapitation, Cuzco Burned, Spaniards Nearly Annihilated

MacQuarrie describes Manco’s year-long assault on Cuzco, complete with Inca armies surrounding the city, cutting off the water supply, and even setting the capital on fire. The Spaniards and their ethnic allies barely managed to survive this desperate fight, losing many of their best leaders in the process. Eventually, however, Manco's troops were dislodged from Saqsaywaman, the Inca stronghold, forcing Manco to abandon his nearly year-long siege.

Context

• The assault on Cuzco took place during the 1530s, a period of intense conflict following the Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire. The Spanish, led by Francisco Pizarro, had captured the Inca capital, Cuzco, in 1533.
• The Incas used traditional siege tactics, such as cutting off supplies and water, to weaken the Spanish forces. This was a common military strategy aimed at forcing a surrender through attrition.
• Beyond the physical deprivation, cutting off water would have had a significant psychological impact on the defenders, increasing panic and lowering morale.
• Cuzco was not only a political center but also a cultural and religious hub for the Incas. Setting it on fire demonstrated the lengths to which the Incas were willing to go to reclaim their land, even if it meant sacrificing their sacred spaces.
• The Spaniards relied heavily on their superior weaponry, including firearms and cavalry, which were unfamiliar to the Inca.
• The death of prominent leaders could have had a demoralizing effect on the remaining Spanish troops, potentially leading to decreased morale and effectiveness in battle.
• Saqsaywaman is a massive Inca fortress located on a hill overlooking the city of Cuzco. It was a key strategic point due to its elevation and formidable construction, featuring large stone walls that were difficult to breach.
• Manco was an Inca ruler who initially cooperated with the Spanish but later led a major rebellion against them after realizing their intentions to dominate the region.

Manco's Withdrawal to Vilcabamba

MacQuarrie now explains how, unable to recapture his capital, Manco Inca abandoned the Cuzco area and retreated to the empire's eastern quarter, to the rugged province called Antisuyu, or “the land of the Antis.”

New Capital Established, Ollantaytambo Transformed Into Fortress

The author clarifies that Vilcabamba wasn't the original Inca capital in Antisuyu. Manco's great grandfather actually constructed a capital further north at Vitcos after conquering the valley. Vitcos had been sacked, however, by the Spaniards in 1537, forcing Manco to go deeper into the jungle and to a location that was more difficult for the Spanish to reach—a small town called Vilcabamba, which his grandfather had established some fifty years earlier. Realizing his sole opportunity to regain power over the empire was through guerrilla warfare, Manco set about recruiting native warriors from the surrounding tribes and began harassing Spanish settlements and Spanish supply trains to such an extent that for the next four decades no Spaniard would be able to travel outside the fortified Spanish towns and cities without an armed escort. Manco also fortified Ollantaytambo as a defensive stronghold—a buffer between Vilcabamba and those forces that still held Cuzco.

Practical Tips

• Create a trivia game with friends using lesser-known historical facts, ensuring that each question challenges common beliefs about history. This can be a fun way to educate others and yourself about the complexities of historical narratives.
• Design a "capital" project in your community by initiating a sustainable improvement initiative. This could involve identifying an underutilized space in your neighborhood and organizing a community effort to transform it into a garden, park, or public art space. Engage with local residents and authorities to gather support and resources, mirroring the way a new capital would be established through collaboration and vision.
• Explore local historical sites to better understand the impact of historical events on present-day communities. By visiting places with a rich history, you can gain a deeper appreciation for how events like the sacking of Vitcos have shaped the world. For example, if you live near a historical battlefield, museum, or a preserved historical town, take a day to explore and learn about its history.
• Cultivate resilience and adaptability by undertaking a challenging outdoor activity, like a survival course or a multi-day hiking trip, to push your limits and learn to thrive in unfamiliar situations.
• Start a book club focused on historical resistance movements to gain insights into unconventional leadership. Gather a group of friends or use online platforms to discuss books that cover various resistance movements throughout history. This can provide a deeper understanding of the strategies and sacrifices made by leaders like Manco and how they rallied support against greater powers.
• Engage in strategy games that simulate historical conflicts to develop a practical understanding of the challenges faced by leaders like Manco. Games such as chess or historical war simulations can provide a hands-on approach to understanding the complexities of sustaining a long-term campaign against a more powerful opponent.
• Engage in a self-defense course to empower yourself with personal safety skills. While the context is different from historical armed escorts, learning self-defense provides a practical way to enhance your personal security in various situations. Look for local self-defense workshops or classes that teach practical techniques you can use to protect yourself if needed.
• Transform your home security by studying ancient fortifications. Look at the layout of Ollantaytambo and similar historical sites for inspiration on how to arrange your home security cameras and lights. By mimicking the strategic placement of defenses, you can optimize the coverage and effectiveness of your security measures.
• Embrace the idea of a buffer in time management by scheduling 'transition periods' between appointments or tasks. These periods would act as buffers to prevent the stress of back-to-back commitments and allow for preparation or travel time. For instance, if you have meetings scheduled throughout the day, ensure there's at least a 15-minute buffer between them to regroup and refocus.

Spanish Faction Power Struggles and Colonial Rule in Peru

MacQuarrie emphasizes that while the Spaniards were struggling to establish colonial rule in Peru after the conquest, they were equally absorbed by a variety of power struggles—struggles that eventually caused the deaths of nearly all of the original conquistadors.

Almagro's Return and Civil War Among the Spanish Factions

The author explains how the fragile political alliance that had existed between Pizarro and Almagro since their first expedition in 1524—one based upon a shared interest in conquest and plunder—erupted into civil war in 1537, after the question arose of who ruled which portion of the newly conquered empire and whether the city of Cuzco lay within Pizarro’s realm or within the jurisdiction of his one-eyed ex-partner.

Spanish Conquest Companies' Greed Led to Warfare

MacQuarrie makes the reader aware of a fundamental fact: that the "Spanish conquest" of Peru was not carried out by government armies, but by private corporations formed by conquistadors—companies that received royal charters or licenses that allowed them to attack and occupy native territories. Because the licenses themselves did not specify the precise territory of jurisdiction, and because measurement techniques at the time were rudimentary, conflict over which individual or group ruled which specific region was almost inevitable. Atahualpa and Huascar's struggle for control of the Incan empire was mirrored by Pizarro and Almagro's battle over who ruled Peru.

Context

• The Spanish Crown's system allowed for a decentralized approach to conquest, reducing the financial risk to the monarchy while expanding its empire.
• The Incan Empire was the largest empire in pre-Columbian America, with a complex society and advanced infrastructure. The civil war disrupted the administrative and social order, contributing to the empire's instability.
• The rivalry between Pizarro and Almagro weakened Spanish authority in the region, leading to further instability and conflicts among the conquistadors and with indigenous groups.

Other Perspectives

• The Spanish Crown's policies and the broader imperial strategy could have intentionally left territories vaguely defined to encourage competition and rapid expansion among conquistadors.

Almagro's Execution and Hernando Pizarro's Exile

MacQuarrie recounts how Hernando Pizarro captured Cuzco in 1538 and then executed Almagro, which prompted charges of murder that were filed against Hernando soon after his return to Spain, accusations that kept the second eldest of the Pizarro brothers in prison for 23 years. Pizarro, meanwhile, as he tried to preserve his grip on Cuzco, took an action that would change everything.

Repatriation of Inca Wealth, Spanish Legal Procedures, and Transition From Private to Royal Administration

The author explains how, despite the death of Almagro, the remaining Almagristas nevertheless continued to be troublesome, leading Pizarro to believe that eventually the king might try to remove his family from power. To ensure a continuation of his family’s control of Peru, Pizarro sent his brother Hernando back to Spain with a trove of riches for the king, with a letter assuring the king of Pizarro’s loyalty, and with a host of requests on the family’s behalf—including the right for Pizarro to personally appoint all town councils in Peru, which would have been a guarantee of the family’s uninterrupted political control there.

Practical Tips

• Develop contingency plans for different scenarios that could affect your status or position. Think about what you would do if you were to face opposition or if a key ally were to withdraw support. Outline steps you would take to mitigate these risks, ensuring you have a strategy in place to maintain your standing.
• Consider investing in a 'treasure' that can grow in value over time, akin to the riches sent to the king. This could be purchasing stocks, bonds, or even a small piece of art or collectible items. The key is to research and find something that has the potential to appreciate in value, providing you with a personal 'trove' that could be beneficial in the long run.
• Create a symbolic token of commitment for your key relationships or partnerships. This could be a custom-designed coin, a bracelet, or a small artwork that you give to someone to symbolize your dedication and loyalty to them. The act of giving something tangible can reinforce the sincerity of your intentions and create a lasting reminder of your commitment.
• Establish a family council to discuss and plan for long-term goals, ensuring that all members have a voice in the family's direction. This council can meet regularly to make decisions on investments, education, and community projects that align with the family's mission statement. It's a way to democratize family governance and ensure that everyone is working towards common objectives.

The Ascension and Decline of Gonzalo Pizarro's Power

MacQuarrie details how, after his three brothers died and the fourth was imprisoned, Gonzalo Pizarro now took over the country, ensuring that his family would continue to dominate it.

Renegade Spaniard: Exploitation, Execution of Native Leaders, and Pizarro Family’s Destruction

The author explains how Gonzalo not only executed the king’s governor but also continued with his brother Francisco’s political tactic of trying to control the native population through a series of brutal counterinsurgency campaigns that sought to exterminate whoever remained of Manco’s supporters. For example, Manco’s old general Tiso and his head priest were both apprehended by Gonzalo and then were burned to death in Cuzco. The author also emphasizes that while Gonzalo spent his days overseeing battles and negotiating with Spanish allies, he also took considerable time off to pursue his own hobbies, which included spending hours playing cards, working in the wheat fields, personally managing the building of mills, helping to fashion a bell for Cuzco’s cathedral, overseeing the creation of Lima’s first sewage system, and generally behaving like someone who had grown up in a peasant environment instead of as a man whom one contemporary characterized as “one of the richest men in the world.” In a remarkable parallel with his brother, in fact, though he had achieved all the riches, authority, and prestige he could have ever imagined, Gonzalo Pizarro still craved exactly what had driven him to Peru in the first place: work.

Practical Tips

• Write a fictional short story that parallels the historical events, focusing on the moral dilemmas faced by characters in positions of power. This creative exercise allows you to delve into the intricacies of leadership and the consequences of actions taken during times of conflict, providing a personal exploration of the themes presented.
• Volunteer for a community garden or local farm to gain hands-on experience in agriculture. This will give you a practical understanding of the effort and knowledge required in food production, akin to working in wheat fields. It's a way to connect with the source of your food and appreciate the labor involved, which can be a grounding and educational experience.
• Create a "Peasant Day" once a month where you only use basic technology, prepare simple meals, and engage in low-cost entertainment. This could mean using public transportation, cooking a meal with ingredients from a local farmers' market, and playing board games or reading instead of using electronic devices for entertainment.
• Start a personal project that challenges you creatively or intellectually, such as writing a book, learning a new language, or building something with your hands. This can provide a fulfilling pursuit that keeps your mind active and engaged, much like a traditional job would, but on your own terms and timeline.

Rediscovering and Exploring Inca’s “Lost Cities” Like Vilcabamba

MacQuarrie weaves his retelling of the Spanish conquest with a parallel account of how lost Inca ruins and cities were discovered in the twentieth century. Machu Picchu and Vilcabamba are the most renowned of these ruins. The author details how both were discovered, explored, and popularized in part by explorers—Hiram Bingham and Savoy—who, although widely acclaimed, were both far from ideal in their roles as scientific chroniclers of the past.

Hiram Bingham Discovered Machu Picchu

The author explains how, after receiving confirmation from a former prefect that ruins on a mountaintop called "Choqquequirau" were those of Manco’s lost city, Bingham—an assistant professor at Yale—quickly came to the conclusion that Choqquequirau could not possibly be Vilcabamba’s location; a Peruvian historian, Carlos Romero, agreed. Bingham, therefore, began to examine historical records from the 1500s, and his interest in lost Inca sites was stimulated. Three years later, Bingham led an expedition that would discover Machu Picchu and—only sixteen days later after finding that—the lost Inca cities of Vitcos and the shrine of Chuquipalpa.

How Romanticism and Amateur Archaeology Fueled the Hunt for Inca Ruins

MacQuarrie emphasizes that Bingham, while a specialist in South American political history, knew little of archaeology, and his knowledge of the Inca people derived from having read a book about them written some sixty years earlier. Bingham’s theories about Machu Picchu—and especially his claim that the site had been ancient Vilcabamba—MacQuarrie shows, were based upon a combination of romantic interpretations of Inca history, an inadequate grasp of the Spanish chronicles, and a rather superficial knowledge of Inca culture. Bingham’s worldwide fame, which was largely due to his finding the “lost city,” no doubt allowed him to propagate his theories about Machu Picchu’s significance, while his refusal to publicly acknowledge any help from anyone else, in addition to distorting or suppressing those facts that tended to undermine his theories about Machu Picchu, only served to create further confusion regarding a site he himself struggled to explain.

Context

• The era was marked by a sense of nationalism and personal glory in exploration. Explorers often sought to be seen as heroic figures, which could lead to downplaying the contributions of local guides or other team members.

Other Perspectives

• Bingham's background in South American political history may have provided him with a unique perspective on Inca society and politics that could complement archaeological findings.
• Subsequent archaeological work has sometimes validated aspects of early explorers' interpretations, suggesting that initial theories, even if partially incorrect, can contribute to the cumulative process of scientific discovery.
• Bingham's fame may not have been solely due to finding Machu Picchu, but also because of the sensational nature of his discovery and the way it was publicized in the media.
• Bingham's interpretations, while not entirely accurate, were based on the limited information and methodologies available to him at the time, which were far less developed than the tools and knowledge accessible to modern archaeologists.

Gene Savoy Found the "Real" Vilcabamba

MacQuarrie details how Gene Savoy—a young adventurer from the United States without a college degree arrived in Peru in 1957, searching for lost Inca ruins—a quest that would ultimately lead him to Manco Inca’s “lost city” of Vilcabamba in 1964.

Reexamining Spanish Chronicles and Local Informants in Ruins Search

The author explains how Savoy, in contrast to Bingham, had the abilities and a strategy suited to unlocking the mysteries of a region long covered by thick jungle and also a region that had been neglected by Peruvian explorers. Savoy, an excellent writer, was careful to weave into the narrative of his quest for lost ruins a host of colorful tales of the region, tales that not only emphasized the region’s dangers—jaguars, “flesh-eating” natives, and various poisonous snakes—but also Savoy’s own extraordinary courage in confronting these dangers. Savoy was also careful in his books to mention how crucial local Spanish chronicles were, as well as paying close attention to tips gleaned from local informants. By carefully mining both of these information sources, Savoy was able to discover Vilcabamba. But if Bingham and Savoy each discovered and were feted for finding lost Inca cities, neither was able to properly appreciate the significance of what they had found or to explain clearly how their new discoveries fit into the overall context of Inca history and archaeology. According to MacQuarrie, accomplishing that required someone with a distinctly different set of skills.

Other Perspectives

• The idea of a single strategy being suited to unlocking the mysteries of a complex and diverse region might oversimplify the challenges involved in archaeological exploration.
• Focusing on the dangers could detract from the cultural and historical significance of the ruins and the achievements of the Inca civilization.
• The emphasis on Savoy's courage could overshadow the contributions and bravery of local guides and informants who were essential to his success and who may have faced these dangers more regularly.
• Tips from local informants are subject to the limitations of oral history, including memory lapses and personal interpretations, which might affect the reliability of the information provided.
• While Savoy may have utilized Spanish chronicles and local informants, it's possible that he also relied on other sources of information that the text does not mention, such as archaeological evidence or previous explorers' accounts.
• The discovery of lost Inca cities is a significant achievement in itself, which may have paved the way for future scholars to fully understand their importance.
• The discoveries by Bingham and Savoy could have been groundbreaking at the time, providing a foundation for future research to build upon, which is a significant contribution in itself.

Vincent Lee and Mapping Inca Vilcabamba

MacQuarrie wants you to notice that Vilcabamba was not simply a large town, but rather a network of buildings, settlements, agricultural terraces, roads, bridges, mines, storage facilities, and royal estates spread across thousands of square miles. Its rediscovery, consequently, was not a single event, rather it was a gradual process that began with Bingham, then Savoy—and finally would be brought to fruition by the architect Vincent Lee.

Scientific Study's Role in Understanding the Inca, Spaniards, and Colonization

The author focuses on Lee’s years of research in Vilcabamba, beginning in 1982, research that would culminate in Lee’s monumental 2000 book, Forgotten Vilcabamba. Lee—an architect without any formal archaeological training but with the patience to map, survey, and carefully document his discoveries—was able to produce a definitive, modern account of the Incas’ abandoned city as well as to integrate his new findings with the Spanish chronicles in an effort to understand the reasons for the Incas building Vilcabamba in such a remote and inaccessible location and why Manco Inca had chosen that very site in which to make his last stand against the invaders who had so abruptly toppled his ancestors’ empire. Lee’s work, MacQuarrie asserts, demonstrates clearly how a new generation of explorers, archaeologists, and other scientists are currently studying the Incan past, Spaniards, and conquest, using the scientific method that necessitates the meticulous and detailed recording and preservation of all facts. By doing so, MacQuarrie asserts, these new chroniclers are working to create a more accurate record of the past and to ensure that its mysteries will be more fully appreciated by future generations.

Practical Tips

• Start a hobby of collecting antique maps and documents from flea markets, antique shops, or online auctions. These items often hold clues to past geographies and settlements that have changed or disappeared over time. As you collect, you'll learn to identify historical inaccuracies or forgotten places, developing a deeper appreciation for how history is recorded and remembered.
• Document the biodiversity in your backyard or a nearby natural area using a nature journal. Observe and record the different species of plants, insects, and animals you encounter, noting their behaviors and how they interact with their environment. Use apps like iNaturalist to identify species and contribute to citizen science projects.
• Create a personal retreat plan by selecting a location that offers you solitude and safety, akin to Manco Inca's choice of Vilcabamba. Consider factors like remoteness, self-sustainability, and defensibility in your selection process. This exercise can help you appreciate the strategic considerations that go into choosing a retreat location, whether for historical leaders or for your own peace of mind.
• Start a discussion group with friends or online to talk about historical facts and their implications. Each member could research a different aspect of the Incan past, Spaniards, or colonization before the meeting. During the discussions, take detailed minutes and compile them into a shared document that grows with each session, creating a collaborative historical record.
• Create a digital scrapbook that combines photos, documents, and personal anecdotes to document the history of your community or a specific local event. Use free online tools to design and share the scrapbook, encouraging contributions from other community members to ensure a diverse and accurate representation of the past.