PDF Summary:The Journey of Crazy Horse, by Joseph M. Marshall II

The iconic life of Crazy Horse unfolds vividly in The Journey of Crazy Horse by Joseph M. Marshall II. This account takes readers from Crazy Horse's upbringing on the hallowed grounds of the Black Hills to his formidable role in the Lakota resistance against the encroachment of American settlers and the U.S. Government.

As pressures mounted to relocate the Lakota onto bounded reservations, Crazy Horse sought to uphold his people's autonomy. Marshall portrays the harrowing clashes, strategic resistance, and eventual surrender of the Lakota - detailing how Crazy Horse navigated this pivotal period while endeavoring to preserve the cherished cultural identity and way of life of his nation.

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Context

• Camp Robinson was a military outpost established in 1874, serving as a center for operations against Native American tribes in the region. It was a place where many Native leaders were forced to negotiate or surrender.
• Various sources, including oral histories from the Lakota and military records, offer conflicting details about the circumstances of Crazy Horse's death, contributing to the mystery and debate.
• The US government and military often spread rumors to create divisions or manipulate Native leaders. This tactic was part of a broader strategy to weaken resistance and enforce compliance.
• The surrender of Crazy Horse in 1877 was part of a broader campaign by the U.S. military to subdue Native American resistance on the Great Plains, following a series of battles and negotiations.
• The Lakota engaged in several conflicts with US forces, including the Battle of the Little Bighorn in 1876, where they achieved a significant victory. However, continued military pressure and loss of resources weakened their resistance.

The lifestyle held dear by the Lakota.

The Lakota cherished the natural world, perceiving a deep connection and sanctity among the land and its creatures.

This excerpt highlights the core values and worldview deeply rooted within the Lakota way of life, underscoring their intense connection to the land and acknowledgment of the interconnectedness of all living beings.

The Lakota held the Black Hills in deep spiritual regard, viewing it as the heart of everything sacred.

Marshall emphasizes the Lakota perspective that regards the land as hallowed, abundant with life, and intricately woven into their cultural fabric, as opposed to being simply an asset to own and utilize. The Black Hills, deeply cherished and often referred to as the core of all existence, served as the spiritual epicenter. Crazy Horse entered the world in a region deeply rooted in the traditions and history of the Lakota people, a sanctuary for age-old stories, sacred rituals such as vision quests, and the final resting grounds for numerous ancestors. Their identity and comprehension of being were deeply rooted in this connection, transcending mere respect. Ownership was not a concept applied to the Black Hills; they existed as an autonomous entity. Marshall suggests that the deep connection to their ancestral lands was a driving force behind their resistance to the encroachment of settlers.

Practical Tips

• Create a visual representation of what you consider sacred by crafting a personal totem or emblem. Use natural materials or symbols that hold special meaning to you to construct a small totem. Place it in a significant area of your home or carry it with you as a reminder of your connection to those values and the earth, much like the spiritual significance the Black Hills holds.
• You can deepen your connection to your local environment by starting a personal journal dedicated to the natural and cultural landmarks in your area. Write about the history, personal memories, and feelings associated with these places. This practice can help you appreciate the significance of your surroundings and foster a sense of belonging.
• Start a digital storytelling project to preserve and share your family's narratives. Use video, audio, or written formats to document the stories of your elders, focusing on the significance of places, events, and traditions in your family's history. Share these stories on a personal blog or social media to keep them alive for future generations.

Other Perspectives

• The idea of any geographical location being the core of all existence is inherently subjective and varies greatly depending on individual or collective worldviews and religious orientations.
• The idea of a deep-rooted connection to land, while significant, might not fully encapsulate the dynamic and evolving nature of cultural identity, which can adapt and change over time in response to various circumstances, including interaction with other cultures and communities.
• The idea of land existing as an autonomous entity is a philosophical or spiritual viewpoint, which may not be universally recognized or legally upheld in the context of national or international law, where land is often subject to sovereignty and ownership.
• Resistance to settlers' encroachment could also be interpreted as a fundamental desire for sovereignty and self-determination, which extends beyond the spiritual connection to the land.

Lakota culture and identity were deeply tied to their hunting-gathering lifestyle and seasonal migration patterns

The nomadic lifestyle of the Lakota, which revolved around hunting and gathering, also shaped their cultural essence and identity. Their existence was deeply connected to the cyclical patterns of the buffalo. Their lifestyle fostered a profound reverence for the wildlife they pursued, coupled with a thorough comprehension of the equilibrium within the ecosystem. Marshall portrays their hunting customs as a means of paying tribute to the creatures that were essential for their existence, thereby establishing a mutual relationship instead of merely extracting what was necessary. The community's deep-rooted interconnectedness was evident in their profound solidarity and collective responsibility to care for one another.

Practical Tips

• Start a seasonal food diary to track and consume foods that are naturally available during different times of the year. This practice will connect you with the rhythms of nature and give you a taste of living in sync with the seasons, much like the Lakota's hunting-gathering lifestyle.
• Plan a 'foraging hike' in a local safe and legal area to experience gathering firsthand. Research edible plants in your region, and take a guided tour or use a reliable mobile app to help identify them. This activity can give you a deeper appreciation for the natural environment and the skills required to live off the land.
• Create a personal sustainability plan based on the natural resources in your vicinity. Research which resources are abundant and which are scarce, then adjust your consumption habits accordingly. For example, if you live in a water-rich area, you might focus on sustainable water usage practices, while if you're in a region with abundant solar energy, you might explore solar power options for your home.
• Engage with a local conservation group to participate in habitat restoration projects. Even without specialized skills, you can help with activities like planting native species, removing invasive plants, or cleaning up waterways. This hands-on approach not only aids in maintaining ecosystem equilibrium but also gives you a tangible sense of the interdependence between humans and wildlife.
• Start a personal tradition of planting a tree on special occasions as a tribute to the earth's flora and fauna. Each tree planted can symbolize gratitude for the natural world, much like hunting customs paid tribute to essential creatures. This act contributes to reforestation and creates a living legacy that benefits the ecosystem.
• Start a neighborhood resource board to foster a sense of collective responsibility. Set up a physical bulletin board or an online group where neighbors can offer and request help, whether it's sharing tools, providing meals for those in need, or offering rides. This creates a network of support mirroring the solidarity seen in close-knit communities.

Societal and communal structures of the Lakota people were built upon the robust base of broad family connections and shared duties.

This section of the narrative explores the communal responsibilities and societal organization as understood from the perspective of the Lakota people.

From an early age, children were raised to deeply understand themselves, respect their elders greatly, and commit to the well-being of their community.

Marshall portrays the Lakota's societal framework as being fundamentally intertwined with familial connections, with every individual playing a role in the collective sustenance, enlightenment, and well-being of the community. From a young age, children learned to recognize who they were, to regard their elders with great respect, and to commit to the collective well-being of their community. During their formative period, they cultivated qualities of kindness, forbearance, and mutual reliance. Mentorship in essential skills such as hunting, proficiency in horseback riding, combat techniques, and spiritual traditions was provided to the youth. Women were pivotal in nurturing children, maintaining familial unity, and upholding the communal framework.

Other Perspectives

• The pressure to deeply understand themselves at a young age might be overwhelming for some children and could lead to undue stress or anxiety.
• Excessive emphasis on respecting elders might suppress a child's ability to express themselves or challenge outdated or harmful practices within a community.
• This approach may not fully prepare children for the increasingly globalized and interconnected world where understanding and navigating diverse cultures and communities is crucial.
• The focus on familial connections might not fully account for the nuances of how different genders contributed to the societal framework, potentially overlooking the specific roles and statuses of women and men in the Lakota society.
• The pressure to conform to community roles may lead to individual dissatisfaction or a sense of lost personal identity.
• The statement doesn't account for the natural identity exploration phase during adolescence, where previous self-concepts are often questioned or discarded.
• In some cases, the expectation of respect could be exploited by those in senior positions to maintain power dynamics that resist necessary change and progress within a community.
• Individualism can foster creativity and innovation, which might be stifled when the focus is predominantly on community well-being.
• The emphasis on these qualities might overlook the importance of fostering a spirit of inquiry and skepticism, which are crucial for personal and intellectual growth.
• Spiritual traditions are important for cultural identity, but there should also be room for personal exploration and the acceptance of diverse beliefs within the community to foster an inclusive environment.
• The idea that women are pivotal in these roles can sometimes lead to an underappreciation of the challenges they face, including the need for support systems and recognition of their work both within and outside the home.

The sacred Sun Dance, along with other Lakota traditions and ceremonies, played a crucial role in reinforcing community ties and enhancing individual lives.

Marshall highlights the significance of traditional ceremonies and spiritual practices, such as the Sun Dance, in the cultural heritage of the Lakota people. These rituals went beyond mere spiritual observances; they underscored the community's collective duties and highlighted the interdependent character of existence. The Sun Dance was a tangible expression of the spirituality they held in common. The community members demonstrated unwavering commitment and a deep dependence on Wakantanka, the supreme spiritual force, through their actions that demanded endurance and self-sacrifice.

Context

• The preparation and execution of the Sun Dance require the participation of the entire community, fostering cooperation and unity. Roles are assigned to various members, from dancers to supporters, creating a shared purpose.
• By participating in these communal activities, individuals strengthened their social bonds, creating a network of support and mutual reliance that enhanced their personal lives.
• The dance often includes a central pole, symbolizing the connection between the earth and the sky, and represents the axis mundi, or world center, in many Indigenous belief systems.
• Rituals often embody the moral and ethical codes of a society, guiding behavior and decision-making in both personal and communal contexts.
• Wakantanka, the Great Spirit, is seen as the source of all life, and the ceremonies emphasize the unity between the spiritual and physical worlds. This belief in a shared spiritual source reinforces the idea that all life is interconnected.

The arrival of Euro-American settlers and the policies of the US government posed significant challenges to the traditional way of life of the Lakota.

The analysis will delve into the increasing threats encountered by the Lakota as a result of the relentless advance of white settlers supported by the United States government. The advancing white settlers' encroachment posed a clear danger to their lands and existence.

The Lakota utilized a combination of peaceful resistance and proactive measures to confront the invasion of their lands, the decline of the buffalo herds they depended on, and the diminishing of their sovereign standing.

The continuous influx of white settlers, driven by the ideologies of "manifest destiny" and "progress," jeopardized the customary way of life of the Lakota people. The creation of the Oregon Trail, cutting through the southern part of Lakota territory, signified this intrusion. Marshall describes how the arrival of settlers disrupted traditional hunting practices, polluted water sources, and caused a significant decline in buffalo numbers, a species crucial to the Lakota people's existence. He underscores the growing unease and opposition that the Lakota experienced as their lands were devastated and their traditional way of life was disrupted.

The Lakota, an indigenous group, confronted this peril through a blend of peaceful resistance and armed challenge. Despite the United States government's pledge in treaties like the ones ratified at Fort Laramie to honor the autonomy and territories of the Lakota, it consistently breached these accords in its unyielding pursuit of land enlargement. The Lakota nation was engaged in an extended conflict to protect their lands and maintain their customary way of life in the face of pioneer expansion.

Context

• The ideology of manifest destiny often disregarded the rights and sovereignty of Indigenous peoples, leading to forced removals, broken treaties, and violent conflicts as settlers encroached on native lands.
• The Oregon Trail was a historic east-to-west wagon route that connected the Missouri River to valleys in Oregon. It was used by thousands of settlers in the mid-1800s seeking new opportunities in the western United States.
• Buffalo herds played a crucial role in maintaining the ecological balance of the Great Plains. Their grazing patterns helped shape the landscape, affecting plant growth and the availability of other wildlife.
• The establishment of military forts and increased military presence in the region was a constant threat and reminder of the U.S. government's power and willingness to use force to achieve its goals.
• The expansion of the railroad network through Lakota lands further exacerbated tensions, as it facilitated the movement of settlers and the military, leading to more encroachments on their territory.
• This was a widely held belief in the 19th century that American settlers were destined to expand across North America, often used to justify the displacement of Native American tribes.

The people of the Lakota nation endeavored to preserve their language, customs, and cultural values in the face of American attempts to integrate them into the dominant culture.

The Lakota understood that the threat extended beyond their territories, jeopardizing their customs, cultural heritage, and principles. Marshall emphasizes that the U.S. Government's push toward assimilation led to the sidelining of the Lakota's customary spiritual practices. He underscores tactics designed to undermine the core elements of the Lakota way of life.

Context

• The Lakota value system is deeply connected to their relationship with the land, emphasizing respect for nature and the interconnectedness of all living things.
• Boarding schools were established to educate Native American children in English and American customs, often prohibiting the use of native languages and practices, which eroded cultural transmission.
• Traditional spiritual practices, such as the Sun Dance, were banned by the U.S. government, which sought to replace them with Christianity, eroding the spiritual foundation of Lakota society.

The Lakota's battle to safeguard their lands and maintain their cultural legacy in the face of white settler encroachment.

The Lakota nation engaged in a prolonged battle to safeguard their territory and maintain their sovereignty from the encroachments of the United States government.

Marshall depicts the struggle of the Lakota not simply as a battle for territory or assets, but as a vital endeavor to safeguard their cultural legacy. This opposition, fueled by intense resolve and profound national pride, manifested through a multifaceted interaction involving military engagements, strategic politicking, and the maintenance of cultural distinctiveness.

Crazy Horse, in concert with leaders like Sitting Bull and Red Cloud, consistently outwitted the US military forces while commanding the Lakota fighters.

The U.S. Army encountered a tenacious opposition from the Lakota. Marshall recounts the continuous clashes with armed forces, punctuated by notable victories like the skirmish commonly known as the Battle of the Hundred in the Hand. Crazy Horse, along with other distinguished leaders, inspired the warrior groups to defend their territory and maintain their autonomy. They battled against the looming threat of losing their treasured Lakota traditions. The persistent pursuit and overwhelming force of the U.S. military ultimately overshadowed the victories that once lifted spirits and demonstrated their prowess in battle.

Practical Tips

• Improve your ability to read and react to changing situations by engaging in team sports or multiplayer video games. These environments often present rapidly changing scenarios that require strategic adjustments, akin to the dynamic battlefields of the past.
• Cultivate a sense of territory in your personal space by personalizing your environment. This could be as simple as organizing your desk to reflect your personality or setting up a garden plot that you tend and make decisions about independently, reinforcing the concept of having and respecting one's own space.
• Engage in a strategy-based game to develop critical thinking skills. Games like chess, Go, or strategy-based video games require you to think several steps ahead and consider the consequences of your actions, much like military leaders do in battle. Regularly playing these games can sharpen your decision-making skills and help you to think more strategically in your daily life.
• Analyze competitive environments in your field to identify where you can make a significant impact, similar to how the Lakota found opportunities despite the U.S. military's dominance. This could involve finding niche markets, creating innovative products, or offering unique services that larger competitors have overlooked.

The relentless pursuit by the US government to dominate the Lakota and coerce their relocation onto reservations posed a significant obstacle for the tribe.

The Lakota recognized that their victories in combat were overshadowed by the formidable weaponry and the vast numbers of troops that the United States could muster. Marshall emphasizes the difficulties encountered when engaged in a prolonged conflict with an adversary who possesses superior technology and unwavering resolve. Their deep knowledge of the land and nimbleness allowed them to execute swift and effective attacks, disappearing before the soldiers could regroup. Their struggle was not only for the dominion over their territories but also to preserve their autonomy and the core of their heritage.

Context

• The Dawes Act of 1887 further eroded tribal landholdings by allotting individual plots to Native Americans and selling surplus land to non-Native settlers, which affected the Lakota and other tribes.
• The US military had access to advanced weaponry for the time, such as repeating rifles and artillery, which gave them a significant advantage over the Lakota, who primarily used traditional weapons like bows and arrows.
• Their spiritual beliefs often emphasized a connection to the land, which not only motivated their defense of it but also informed their strategies and decisions in battle.
• The fight to maintain autonomy was also a fight to preserve their identity as a distinct people with a unique cultural heritage, resisting the erasure of their history and traditions.

The Lakota utilized a blend of combat strategies and diplomatic efforts to resist the encroachment of European-American settlers into their ancestral lands.

The Lakota leaders, recognizing their successes in combat, understood the formidable power of the United States Government and aimed to negotiate treaties that would secure some measure of peace and, if possible, preserve their autonomy.

Negotiations to protect their ancestral lands were undertaken by leaders including Red Cloud and Spotted Tail.

At the peak of hostilities, leaders of the Lakota such as Red Cloud and Spotted Tail also acknowledged the significance of adopting diplomatic approaches. Marshall recounts the efforts of chiefs from the Lakota tribe who participated in peace talks with government officials across a series of meetings at a well-known military stronghold. They sought to establish the boundaries of their land, protect their hunting territories, and lessen the negative impacts associated with the passage of the Oregon Trail. However, as Marshall points out, these agreements were ultimately futile because the federal authorities repeatedly violated their commitments, devising strategies to twist provisions and take advantage of gaps that allowed for additional territorial infringement.

Context

• Red Cloud and Spotted Tail were prominent leaders of the Oglala and Brulé bands of the Lakota Sioux, respectively. Their leadership came during a period of intense conflict between Native American tribes and the U.S. government, particularly during the mid to late 19th century.
• The hunting territories were crucial for the Lakota's subsistence economy, relying heavily on buffalo and other game for food, clothing, and tools.
• The movement of large numbers of settlers along the trail also brought diseases to which Native Americans had no immunity, causing devastating outbreaks and significant population declines among indigenous communities.
• Differences in cultural perspectives on land ownership and use often led to misinterpretations of treaty terms, with Native concepts of communal land use clashing with European-American notions of private property.

Certain leaders of the Lakota, among them Spotted Tail, opted for reservation life to avoid further conflict.

The Lakota were not a monolithic entity. Tensions arose between the individuals committed to preserving their nomadic lifestyle and those seeking concord. Certain chiefs, including Spotted Tail, acknowledged that adapting to reservation life, despite its inherent risks, could be the only path to preservation, a choice that continuously threatened the core traditions and legacy of the Lakota nation. Marshall considered the discord within the Lakota community to be especially concerning, as it became a tool for U.S. government agents who exploited it by using Lakota individuals connected to the agency to gather information and stir up strife among various factions, thereby undermining resistance.

Context

• The U.S. government used treaties and promises of supplies and protection to persuade Native American leaders to move to reservations. However, these promises were frequently broken, leading to further hardship and disillusionment.
• Within tribes, there were divisions between those who saw adaptation as a necessary survival strategy and those who believed in continuing resistance to preserve their traditional way of life.
• Leaders like Spotted Tail and others who chose to move to reservations were often seen as pragmatists, trying to ensure the survival of their people in the face of overwhelming odds, but their decisions were sometimes viewed as controversial or as betrayals by those who wished to continue resisting.

The resistance of the Lakota ultimately led to their downfall, which ended with the loss of their ancestral lands and the creation of the reservation system.

The Lakota encountered considerable difficulties in upholding their resistance amid the consequences of broken treaties and continuous conflicts with a determined opponent.

The determination of the US authorities to persuade the Lakota to relinquish the Black Hills remained steadfast.

The determination of the American authorities did not waver. The discovery of gold in the Black Hills, a region profoundly revered by the Lakota, markedly intensified the U.S. Government's push to expand its control. The white settlers persisted in staking their claims despite the 1868 Fort Laramie Treaty recognizing the Lakota's sovereignty over the Black Hills. The suggestion by Marshall is that the irresistible temptation of gold eradicated the possibility of amicable discussions, propelling a country to advance with the belief that its expansion would encompass the whole territory. The deepest grief they endured was due to the government's unyielding pursuit of precious resources, leading to the loss of their sacred lands known as the Black Hills.

Context

• The U.S. government faced pressure from settlers and prospectors to open the Black Hills for mining, leading to a series of conflicts and negotiations that ultimately disregarded the treaty.
• Gold was a highly sought-after resource that could significantly boost the economy, leading governments to prioritize its acquisition over existing treaties or agreements.
• The Lakota have continued to fight for the return of the Black Hills through legal means. In 1980, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled that the land was taken illegally and awarded financial compensation, which the Lakota have refused, insisting on the return of the land instead.

The Lakota were compelled to surrender their autonomy and self-rule, which led to the collapse of their traditional way of life.

The Lakota were forced to confront the harsh reality of their loss, which impacted them on personal and communal levels. Individuals and their families sought sanctuary in agencies, compelled not by agreement with the concept of residing on designated lands, but by the essential need for survival. Marshall depicts the transition from a life of freedom and nomadism to the confining and demoralizing existence within a reservation's boundaries. As they were deprived of the territories where they traditionally hunted and their customary migration paths were disrupted, their cultural identity diminished and their despair intensified.

Context

• The loss of autonomy and traditional lifestyle had profound psychological effects, contributing to a sense of hopelessness and loss of purpose among the Lakota people.
• Agencies were government-established centers on reservations where Native Americans were expected to live. These were part of the U.S. government's policy to manage and control Indigenous populations by confining them to specific areas.
• The reservation system disrupted traditional social structures and leadership roles, as the U.S. government often imposed its own systems of governance, sidelining traditional leaders.
• The introduction of alcohol and other substances, often used as a coping mechanism, led to additional social and health issues within the community.

The historical context and the catastrophic consequences stemming from the hostilities between the Lakota people and the United States federal government.

The clash with the Lakota occurred as settlers expanded westward, leading to the displacement of native populations from their ancestral territories.

This section of the narrative seeks to broaden the scope by discussing the wider consequences of America's westward expansion and its devastating impact on Indigenous populations.

The pursuit of gold and other resources in the American West intensified, prompting the nation to escalate its efforts to appropriate lands from the indigenous populations.

Marshall places the Lakota opposition within the wider story of the aggressive westward expansion by the United States government. Prospectors combed through the western territories in search of precious metals, while lumberjacks targeted wooded areas to harvest timber, all spurred by the initial Californian gold frenzy that established a pattern for such endeavors across the area. The unyielding spread of settlers had severe consequences that affected more than just the Lakota. Many other indigenous groups, from those living along the Pacific coast to the Pueblo societies in the Southwest, encountered comparable encroachments. The Lakota tribe's battle epitomizes a recurring and distressing trend of land appropriation, unfulfilled commitments, and state-endorsed aggression towards Native Americans.

Context

• This gold rush significantly contributed to California's rapid population growth and its admission as a state in 1850.
• Innovations such as the steam-powered sawmill increased the efficiency of logging operations, allowing for faster and more extensive harvesting of timber.
• Completed in 1869, it facilitated easier movement of people and goods across the country, accelerating settlement and economic exploitation of the West.
• Military campaigns, such as the Indian Wars, were conducted by the U.S. government to forcibly remove Native Americans from their ancestral lands to make way for settlers and resource extraction.
• Refers to the forced relocation of the Cherokee Nation and other tribes from their ancestral homelands in the southeastern United States to designated Indian Territory, resulting in significant loss of life and culture.
• Numerous conflicts, such as the Apache Wars and the Modoc War, arose as indigenous groups resisted the encroachment and fought to defend their lands.

The principle of "manifest destiny" was used by the nation to justify its dominance over and assimilation of Native American societies.

Marshall posits that this growth was driven by a perilous creed adopted by numerous Americans, which held that white Americans were predestined by divine sanction to extend their dominion and sway throughout the continent. This belief system served as a pretext for the invasion of Indigenous territories, the breach of agreements, and, in instances where opposition became too problematic, engaging in direct military conflict.

Context

• The breach of agreements was not just a legal or territorial issue but also a cultural one. It disrupted traditional ways of life, leading to loss of cultural practices and languages.

Other Perspectives

• The emphasis on divine sanction overlooks the agency and autonomy of Native American societies, implying a deterministic view of history that negates the complex interactions between different groups.
• Military conflict was not always the first or only response to opposition; there were instances where negotiation, treaties, and other diplomatic efforts were attempted before any military action was taken.

The Lakota faced a series of broken promises during their conflict with the formidable power of the United States government.

The relationship between the United States government and the Lakota was initially marked by dishonesty, forceful persuasion, and overt demonstrations of dominance.

The United States government employed treaties like those of Fort Laramie to officially sanction the seizure of lands that were under the stewardship of the Lakota people.

The Lakota people entered into discussions aimed at maintaining peaceful relations, which included treaty talks at Fort Laramie and various other locations. However, Marshall underscores that the treaties, purportedly designed to protect and recognize the Lakota's intrinsic rights, often became instruments of duplicity. The government's "peace talkers" used misleading terms and exploited cultural differences to persuade the Lakota into agreements that largely benefited white settlers, thus eroding the sovereignty and territorial rights inherent to the Lakota people. The swift uncovering of gold resulted in the immediate abandonment of the 1868 Fort Laramie Treaty, which had once seemed to ensure that the Lakota would retain ownership of the Black Hills.

Context

• The Fort Laramie Treaties, particularly those of 1851 and 1868, were agreements between the United States and various Native American tribes, including the Lakota. These treaties were part of a broader pattern of treaty-making during the westward expansion of the United States, often resulting in the displacement of Native peoples.
• Even when treaties were signed, they were often not honored by the U.S. government. Legal loopholes and subsequent legislation, such as the Indian Appropriations Act, were used to invalidate or undermine treaty agreements.
• The U.S. often used intermediaries who were not always trustworthy or who had their own agendas, further complicating negotiations and leading to biased outcomes favoring settlers.
• The discovery of gold in the Black Hills was part of the larger Black Hills Gold Rush, which began in 1874. This event drew thousands of miners and settlers to the region, despite it being designated as Lakota land under the 1868 treaty.

The US military's inclination to use violence manifested itself in attacks on Lakota communities, especially during events such as the Grattan incident and the Washita massacre.

Whenever diplomatic attempts failed or were disregarded by those with opposing goals, the United States often resorted to deploying its military might. The incident involving Grattan heightened distrust among the Lakota people towards the incoming settlers. In 1864, Colonel John Chivington led Colorado volunteers in a brutal assault on peaceful Cheyenne and Arapaho villages located at Sand Creek. In 1868, Lieutenant Colonel George Custer launched an attack on a peaceful Cheyenne village, which was under the guidance of Black Kettle, by the Washita River, thereby establishing a pattern for attacks on communities that were not involved in hostilities. These events demonstrated that the US government was not above resorting to violence and cruelty to achieve its objectives.

Context

• During the 19th century, the US government was focused on westward expansion, often prioritizing this over diplomatic relations with Native American tribes. This expansionist policy frequently led to conflicts over land and resources.
• The Grattan incident is often seen as a catalyst for the First Sioux War, highlighting the broader pattern of conflict and broken treaties between the U.S. government and Native American tribes.
• Chivington was a former Methodist preacher and a colonel in the Union Army during the Civil War. He was known for his strong anti-Native American sentiments and played a key role in the attack.
• The Washita attack is often debated among historians regarding its classification as a battle or a massacre, reflecting differing perspectives on Custer's actions and intentions.
• The 1864 attack led by Colonel John Chivington resulted in the deaths of many Cheyenne and Arapaho, including women and children, despite the village displaying a white flag of truce. This event is often cited as one of the most egregious examples of violence against Native Americans.

The traditional way of life for the Lakota people was irreparably disrupted by their defeat and subsequent compulsory relocation to reservations.

The Lakota were left with no alternatives but to surrender or risk total annihilation. Crazy Horse considered the well-being of his tribe's future generations when making the decision to surrender, despite his personal desire to keep fighting.

The way of life for the Lakota, which revolved around hunting and gathering, faced significant disruption due to dwindling buffalo herds and the creation of reservation boundaries.

Marshall depicts the seizure of the Black Hills, which were at the heart of the Lakota territory, along with the annihilation of the buffalo populations, as the most devastating events. These losses had a profound impact, not only on their sustenance but on their identity. The reliance on government supplies eroded the capacity for independence and undermined traditional cultural practices within the communities living on the reservations.

Context

• Hunting and gathering were not just economic activities but also means of passing down knowledge, skills, and cultural values from one generation to the next.
• The confinement to reservations limited access to natural resources, leading to economic dependency on government rations and supplies, which were often inadequate and of poor quality.
• The Black Hills, known as Paha Sapa to the Lakota, are considered sacred. They are seen as the center of the world and a place of origin, deeply tied to their creation stories and spiritual practices.
• Alongside material dependency, there were often pressures to assimilate into Euro-American culture, further eroding traditional practices and beliefs.

The society's young individuals were obligated to enroll in residential schools.

The establishment of reservation lands by the United States government was coupled with a vigorous effort to assimilate the Lakota people into American society, encouraging them to abandon their traditional ways, heritage, and indigenous language. Marshall illustrates how the traditional ways and spiritual practices of the natives deteriorated due to the intrusion of government officials and religious evangelists; children of the Lakota were taken against their will and sent to distant educational institutions where they were disciplined for speaking their indigenous language.

Context

• In recent years, there has been a movement to acknowledge and address the historical injustices of residential schools, including official apologies and efforts to support cultural revitalization.
• The transition to reservation life often meant a shift from a nomadic or semi-nomadic lifestyle, which relied on hunting and gathering, to a sedentary one that required adaptation to agriculture or dependence on government rations.
• The policies of assimilation have had lasting impacts on Native American communities, contributing to cultural loss and intergenerational trauma, issues that many communities continue to address today.
• Despite the oppressive environment, many Indigenous children and communities found ways to resist and preserve their cultural practices and languages, often in secret or upon returning home.
• Punishments for speaking native languages often included physical punishment, isolation, or other harsh disciplinary measures, reflecting the oppressive nature of these institutions.

The Lakota's persistent fight to maintain their unique cultural identity and autonomy in the face of American assimilation attempts spanned numerous generations.

Despite these significant transformations, the Lakota continued to participate actively. They remained steadfast in their resistance to the effects of reservation life and vigorously worked to preserve their cultural heritage. The native inhabitants' cultural resilience manifested in a rebellion that surfaced as the nineteenth century drew to a close. This endeavor aimed to revive ancient spiritual practices, which ultimately led to the tragic incident at Pine Ridge Reservation in 1890, referred to as the Wounded Knee Massacre. This incident highlighted the determination of the U.S. Government to erase the core essence of the Lakota people, adding another episode in their continuous struggle to safeguard their heritage.

Context

• Leaders like Crazy Horse and Sitting Bull played crucial roles in organizing resistance against U.S. encroachment and maintaining cultural identity, becoming symbols of defiance and resilience.
• The creation of traditional art, such as beadwork and quillwork, was a way to maintain cultural expression and pass down skills and symbols unique to the Lakota.
• The Ghost Dance was inspired by the visions of a Paiute prophet named Wovoka, who claimed that performing the dance would lead to a new era of peace and prosperity for Native Americans.
• Wounded Knee has become a symbol of Native American resistance and the struggle for rights and recognition. It is remembered as a tragic event in U.S. history, highlighting the consequences of colonial expansion and cultural erasure.
• The Lakota are part of the larger Sioux Nation, which includes the Dakota and Nakota tribes, and they traditionally inhabited areas of the northern Great Plains.