PDF Summary:The Hundred Years' War on Palestine, by Rashid Khalidi

In The Hundred Years' War on Palestine, Rashid Khalidi presents a thorough account of the century-long conflict between Zionist movements and the Palestinian people. He argues that Zionism's colonial aspirations, bolstered by significant international support, progressively eroded and displaced the native Arab population in Palestine.

Khalidi carefully traces the origins of the conflict—from early Zionist ambitions to the pivotal Balfour Declaration—all the way to modern-day hostilities. His analysis sheds light on the transformative impact on Palestinian identity, society, and governance, as well as the enduring quest for self-determination and statehood.

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The dynamics of the Cold War, internal political factors, and shared personal and ideological connections all played a role in the United States' overt support for Israel after the conflict.

Rashid Khalidi's work depicts the post-World War II shift in global power, marking the emergence of the United States as a pivotal player in the politics of the Middle East. The United States ascended to the primary international position in the Palestinian dispute, a status once occupied by Great Britain, following the tenure of President Harry Truman. The United States' postwar position shifted, resulting in unequivocal support for Israel and simultaneously overlooking Palestinian rights. Domestic factors also played a significant role, with numerous American presidents aiming to garner support from Jewish constituents and secure campaign funding. Khalidi sheds light on how the situation was shaped by the deep-seated personal and ideological ties of President Truman's advisors, which exposed their strong pro-Zionist biases.

The tendency to lean towards Israel when setting the groundwork for negotiations hinders an equitable resolution of the conflict and reinforces the perpetuation and growth of Israel's territorial control.

Khalidi emphasizes that the bias in favor of Israel has hindered a just resolution of the conflict and swayed the negotiations in a way that greatly weakens the stance of the Palestinians. The author exposes the degree of favoritism by the United States, particularly during the administrations of Lyndon Johnson and Ronald Reagan, which allowed Israel to influence the conditions of several peace talks, such as the 1978 Camp David Accords, the Madrid-Washington talks in the 1990s, and the Oslo Agreements in 1993 and 1995. The influence of pro-Israel groups such as AIPAC, coupled with the strong Zionist beliefs of many American negotiators in the peace talks, resulted in circumstances that undermined the goals of the Palestinian people and persistently supported the growth of Israeli territory and the establishment of settlements.

The Arab countries often adopted complex positions, at times engaging in behavior that was detrimental to the Palestinian struggle and also sought to control the Palestinian national identity.

Arab countries have occasionally acted in ways that are contradictory and occasionally detrimental, professing support for Palestinian aspirations while also trying to control the Palestinian national movement to advance their regional ambitions. Khalidi maintains that the Arab League's actions since its inception in 1945, such as attempts to dominate the PLO, represent Palestinians internationally, and impose preferred resolutions, have ultimately weakened the Palestinian stance, thereby permitting Israel to negotiate with its opponents on a one-on-one basis.

The internal conflicts among Arab nations, coupled with their dependence on external allies, have hindered the Palestinians' pursuit of autonomy and contributed to reinforcing Israel's hegemonic position in the region.

Khalidi argues that the legacy of inter-Arab rivalries and the dependence of Arab regimes on external powers, particularly during the Cold War era, have been crucial to Israel’s regional hegemony. Numerous factors have consistently obstructed the Palestinian pursuit of self-governance. Arab leaders often prioritized their personal ambitions and objectives within the region over the unified pursuit of Palestinian self-governance, demonstrated by King Abdullah of Jordan's clandestine discussions with Israeli officials before and after 1948 aimed at consolidating his control over specific territories within the Palestinian domain.

Other Perspectives

• The British mandate was a complex administrative period, and some argue that British policies were not solely pro-Zionist but also included measures that restricted Jewish immigration and land purchases, especially with the White Papers of 1939.
• The United States' support for Israel can also be seen as a strategic alliance based on shared democratic values and mutual security interests, rather than purely ideological or politically motivated support.
• Some historians and analysts argue that the Arab states' positions were not always detrimental to the Palestinian cause but were sometimes driven by a genuine concern for the welfare of the Palestinians and the stability of the region.
• It can be argued that the Arab states' engagement with the Palestinian issue has at times been beneficial, providing political support, refuge for displaced Palestinians, and financial aid.
• The role of Arab nations in the conflict is multifaceted, with some instances where Arab countries have made significant efforts to broker peace and support Palestinian leadership.
• The influence of pro-Israel groups in the United States is often matched by the influence of other interest groups, and U.S. foreign policy is the result of a complex interplay of various domestic and international factors.
• The portrayal of Israel's territorial control might be contested by those who argue that Israel's actions are defensive and a response to security threats, rather than a unilateral pursuit of territorial expansion.
• Some perspectives might suggest that the peace negotiations, such as the Oslo Accords, were genuine attempts to reach a compromise, and the failure to achieve lasting peace is due to a multitude of factors, including actions and decisions by Palestinian leadership.

The emergence and fortification of Palestinian national awareness and its resistance movements arose as a reaction to the creation of a colonial settler state.

Khalidi meticulously documents the growth and maturation of Palestinian national awareness and resistance in the face of escalating colonial encroachment. He challenges the prevalent narrative in Zionist discourse that dismisses the existence of a Palestinian identity and portrays their opposition to Israel simply as unfounded hostility toward Jews. Rashid Khalidi characterizes the rise of Palestinian nationalism as a consequence of historical developments that influenced various national movements at the time, such as the disintegration of the Ottoman Empire and the spread of nationalist ideologies, along with the difficulties posed by Zionist efforts to create a foothold in Palestine. A broad spectrum of resistance tactics, encompassing nonviolent demonstrations and extensive work halts to revolts and irregular combat strategies, unmistakably demonstrated a robust nationalistic sentiment.

The establishment of the British Mandate, coupled with the aftermath of World War I, altered regional allegiances and fostered the emergence of a modern nationalist movement that became central to the Palestinian identity.

Khalidi depicts the evolution of Palestinian self-awareness from regional allegiances into a modern national awareness, accelerated by the upheaval of World War I, the issuance of the Balfour Declaration, and the establishment of the British Mandate. The looming risk of displacement, as a consequence of the Zionist movement's endeavors backed by the British, galvanized Palestinians to solidify their sense of nationhood, anchored in their longstanding ties to the land of Palestine, highlighting their collective right to self-governance.

Palestinian journalists and thinkers played a pivotal role in fostering an increasing sense of nationhood and in stimulating resistance to the aims of the Zionist movement.

According to Khalidi, the press in Palestine and its intellectuals played a pivotal role in fostering the emerging sense of nationhood. Publications such as Filastin and al-Karmil, under the guidance of notable figures like ‘Isa al-‘Isa and Najib Nassar, consistently worked to emphasize the dangers posed by Zionist settlement and to promote resistance to British rule as well as Zionist ambitions. The dangers posed by the Zionist initiative, though not recognized for a considerable time, eventually proved to be remarkably accurate in predicting subsequent developments.

In the aftermath of the Nakba in 1948, Palestinians resumed their armed resistance, which resulted in the creation of groups like Fatah and the PFLP to challenge Israeli dominance.

Following the calamitous events that led to the establishment of Israel on a substantial expanse of Palestinian territory, a new generation of Palestinian activists arose, resolute in challenging Israel's ongoing dominance through armed struggle. The establishment of organizations like Fatah in 1959 and the Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine in 1967 marked a continuous dedication to political action, albeit with objectives that diverged from those of pre-1948 entities. These entities concentrated their activities not solely on Israel but also initiated a diplomatic crusade to gain worldwide recognition and validation.

The growing recognition of the Palestine Liberation Organization as the global representative for Palestinian issues, coupled with its diplomatic successes within the United Nations and intricate dealings with different Arab countries.

The creation of the Palestine Liberation Organization by the Arab League in 1964 marked a crucial point in gaining worldwide recognition for the aspirations of Palestinian statehood and in taking back the power to narrate their own history. The PLO's skillful navigation through the diplomatic channels of the United Nations, along with its success in uniting Palestinians worldwide, and its growing sway over nations in the developing world, started to alter global perceptions, despite frequent attempts by Arab countries to control the organization. In 1974, the PLO's ascent to prominence was underscored when the Arab League designated it as the singular authorized voice for the Palestinian people.

The Intifada emerged as a largely nonviolent, grassroots campaign challenging Israeli control, marking a shift that brought the focal point of Palestinian opposition back to the regions within Palestine.

The commencement of the Palestinian uprising in 1987 was a critical juncture in their pursuit of liberation. Khalidi maintains that this extensive, largely nonviolent uprising challenged Israel's occupation by shifting the Palestinian resistance's attention back to their own land and involving all parts of the society. The uprising was driven by a new wave of Palestinians who had only experienced the harsh conditions imposed by military governance. The organization's leadership primarily consisted of young individuals, with a significant representation of women from diverse social backgrounds, setting themselves apart from the traditional elite that usually dominated the political landscape of Palestine.

The rebellion was pivotal in changing worldwide perceptions of the conflict, exposing the severity of the occupation and contributing to the recognition of the PLO, which subsequently led to the commencement of the Oslo Accords.

The uprising originated from internal dissatisfaction and was not just a reaction to Israeli actions; it also emerged as a significant and influential international campaign aiming to reestablish Palestinian autonomy and alter global perceptions of the conflict. The global transmission of images showing Israeli soldiers' harsh treatment of defenseless Palestinian demonstrators altered international perceptions, leading to increased advocacy for the rights of the Palestinian people. The worldwide support that the uprising received, along with internal disputes and the simultaneous diplomatic efforts of the PLO, led to Israel's recognition of the organization and the eventual Oslo Accords.

Other Perspectives

• The emergence of Palestinian national awareness and resistance could also be seen as part of a broader Arab and regional response to the breakup of the Ottoman Empire and European colonialism, not solely a reaction to Zionism.
• Some argue that elements of Palestinian national identity were present before the British Mandate and World War I, suggesting that the Mandate and the war accelerated rather than initiated the nationalist movement.
• While Palestinian journalists and thinkers indeed played a role in fostering national awareness, some might argue that their influence was limited by the literacy rates and the reach of the press at the time.
• The characterization of the Nakba and subsequent armed resistance could be challenged by those who argue that such resistance also included acts of terrorism, which targeted civilians as well as military personnel.
• Critics of the PLO might argue that its diplomatic successes were sometimes overshadowed by internal divisions, corruption, and a lack of democratic representation within the organization.
• The Intifada, while largely nonviolent, did include significant elements of violence, and some might argue that it was not as grassroots or inclusive as suggested, with various factions vying for control.
• The Oslo Accords are viewed by some as a flawed process that failed to address key issues such as settlements, the status of Jerusalem, and the right of return, leading to ongoing conflict rather than a lasting peace.

The conflict evolved through different stages, culminating in a type of governance that profoundly transformed the societal, political, and demographic landscape.

Khalidi examines how the prolonged colonial conflict in Palestine has shaped the social fabric, governance, and demographic spread of the Palestinian community. The various phases of this conflict, from Zionist land purchases and settlement expansion to full-fledged wars and military occupations, have reshaped life for Palestinians in fundamental ways. Khalidi argues that the consequences of the conflict have perpetuated a history characterized by conflict, involuntary displacement, and suffering.

The establishment of exclusive Jewish settlements and the procurement of land by Zionist entities resulted in the uprooting of Palestinian agricultural workers, significantly altering the societal and economic landscape throughout Palestine.

The strategies employed by Zionists to acquire land, starting in the latter part of the Ottoman era and prior to the British Mandate, had a deep impact on the agrarian societies within Palestine. Rashid Khalidi points out that the widespread purchase of farmland, often through deals with absentee landlords, resulted in the uprooting of Palestinian farmers who had cultivated those lands for many years. The creation of solely Jewish settlements in rural areas markedly altered the social and economic realities for the Palestinian inhabitants.

The encouragement of Jewish immigration significantly contributed to the transformation of Palestine's demographic composition, shifting it from being predominantly Arab.

Khalidi emphasizes the goal of changing the population makeup of Palestine by encouraging Jewish people to move there. Khalidi, drawing on Herzl’s pronouncements on "spiriting away" the existing population, shows that creating a Jewish-majority state in a land that had an overwhelming Arab majority was only possible by bringing in enough Jewish settlers to tip the demographic balance. The strategy to alter the population ratio, which was effectively carried out by the Zionist movement with initial support from Britain and later from the United States, involved a concerted effort to promote Jewish immigration to achieve the desired demographic for its goals. A strategy that culminated in the expulsion of Palestinians in 1948 and the ongoing colonization of their territories was essential to establish a nation-state in Palestine with a predominantly Jewish population.

In 1948, the Nakba resulted in a widespread scattering of Palestinians, who fled to neighboring Arab nations and further afield, leading to significant divisions among Palestinian communities and maintaining an ongoing condition of dislocation.

Khalidi argues that the 1948 Nakba, a time during which the nascent state of Israel took control of most Palestinian lands, forced out a large number of Palestinians, and appropriated their possessions, ought to be acknowledged as a catastrophe that irrevocably changed the demographic and geographic landscape of the area. The shift profoundly altered the demographic makeup and the framework of social systems within Palestinian society. The catastrophic upheaval severed familial and communal bonds, propelling a widespread exodus of Palestinians to seek refuge in adjacent Arab countries and beyond, a condition that continues up to this day. The Nakba catastrophe, followed by ensuing displacement and fragmentation, has shaped every event that followed, becoming a fundamental aspect of Palestinian identity.

The enduring social, cultural, economic, and political consequences of the Nakba in shaping Palestinian identity and framing the struggle for self-determination

Khalidi explores the profound societal, cultural, economic, and political consequences stemming from the Nakba, portraying it as a shared national catastrophe. The consequences led to the collapse of established authorities and the rise of new leadership groups within Palestine, along with the development of various strategies to challenge Israeli dominance after 1948. The flourishing of Palestinian intellectual pursuits contributed to the shaping of a renewed sense of Palestinian identity, encompassing experiences of displacement and perseverance, as well as the pursuit of international recognition for their statehood by presenting their struggle in a new light.

Over the past five decades, the Israeli occupation has resulted in substantial transformations, including the impact of military rule, the expansion of settler populations, and the widespread restriction of civil liberties and rights of Palestinians.

Israel expanded its jurisdiction after the 1967 occurrences to include the West Bank, East Jerusalem, and the Gaza Strip, territories that had been beyond its borders since the 1948 conflict, resulting in the creation of more extensive administrative systems. The Palestinian community was subjected to governance by a militarized power and encountered various discriminatory actions. The measures implemented involved expanding settlements through land annexation, curtailing basic freedoms, using a system of imprisonment without trial to detain individuals, and banishing prominent community members.

The intricate array of checkpoints, monitoring stations, and control mechanisms has significantly disrupted the continuity of the West Bank and severely limited the freedom of movement for people within Gaza and East Jerusalem.

The author meticulously outlines the progression of these strategies, particularly highlighting how the system of governance has increasingly become more oppressive over time. The daily lives of Palestinians have been markedly altered by the presence of checkpoints, surveillance stations, and a regulatory framework for entry permissions due to the occupation. The repercussions are clear in the West Bank, characterized by its settlements, bypass roads, and a separation barrier, and extend to the Gaza Strip, which is surrounded by an all-encompassing blockade enforced by Israel. Khalidi emphasizes the significant and harmful transformations, particularly the deliberate severing of East Jerusalem's economic and political ties to the West Bank.

Practical Tips

• You can deepen your understanding of the Palestinian experience by creating a personal map that traces the historical shifts in the region. Start with a blank map of Palestine and mark significant events and changes over time, such as the Nakba or the establishment of checkpoints. This visual representation can help you grasp the geographical and societal transformations that have occurred.
• Engage with Palestinian culture through literature and art to gain a more nuanced perspective of their identity and struggle. Seek out books, films, and artwork created by Palestinians, which can provide a personal connection to the events and changes described. This can foster a deeper empathy and understanding of the Palestinian narrative beyond the political discourse.
• Foster conversations with people from different backgrounds about the impact of societal and political transformations on communities. Use the Palestinian example to initiate discussions on how similar events have affected other regions or groups. This can lead to a broader awareness of the consequences of conflict and displacement, encouraging a more informed and compassionate worldview.

The enduring effects of the Hundred Years' War still influence the ongoing dispute.

Khalidi argues that the enduring strife in Palestine has deeply infiltrated the everyday existence of Palestinians as well as Israelis. The circumstances have perpetuated political challenges, incited a continuous loop of conflict and radicalism, and hindered the prospects for securing a fair and enduring resolution.

The ongoing struggle, fueled by the dispossession and displacement from Palestinian territories, perpetuates opposition to Israeli policies, despite the waning power of their united front.

Khalidi sheds light on the enduring mental and emotional turmoil experienced by Palestinians as a result of the prolonged strife. The Palestinian national movement's waning vigor in recent times is fueled by an enduring sense of dispossession and a shared recollection of the events that transpired in 1948. Khalidi, drawing on the artistic works of authors and poets such as Emile Habibi and Ghassan Kanafani, along with the visual arts and cinema from later generations, illustrates the enduring hardship of displacement and dispossession as a key factor that has ignited resistance and reshaped the story of national perseverance in the face of overwhelming odds.

The collective story of endurance and the profound influence that the Palestinians' displacement and property loss had on shaping their identity.

Khalidi argues that the enduring opposition is rooted in a shared recollection and the genuine reality of being scattered and residing away from their homeland, a notion referred to as the shatat. The Palestinian population has steadfastly shown a deep-rooted dedication and persistent bond to their land, effectively challenging the reductive and belittling rhetoric of Zionism. The enduring Nakba remains a core aspect of Palestinian identity, uniting people within and beyond the original borders of their homeland by a shared ordeal of being uprooted, enduring mental anguish, and a steadfast resolve to continue.

The path to resolving the conflict has become increasingly difficult as Israeli settlements continue to grow, a system akin to apartheid takes shape, and a strong foundation for peace talks remains absent.

Rashid Khalidi, who advised Palestinian negotiators during the peace negotiations in Madrid and Washington in the 1990s, talks about the initial hope sparked by the early stages of the First Intifada and the signing of the 1993 Oslo Accords, which ultimately resulted in heightened disenchantment, alienation, and discord. The continuous construction of Israeli settlements in areas that are occupied, along with the entrenchment of a system that resembles apartheid and the absence of a genuine partner for peace in Israel, have progressively made it impossible to reach an equitable resolution of the conflict, despite the PLO's acceptance of a two-state solution and recognition of Israel's right to exist.

The intensification of extreme political measures and hostility arose from the disregard for Palestinian national rights and the failure to achieve an equitable resolution.

In 2002, after the Second Intifada, when Israel reasserted control over Palestinian regions, surrounded Yasser Arafat's base in Ramallah, and fragmented the Palestinian territories with walls, fences, and a system of permits overseen by Israel, the progress toward realizing the goal of a Palestinian state was significantly obstructed. The conditions in the Gaza Strip deteriorated markedly, experiencing three intense Israeli military offensives from 2008 to 2014, alongside the continuous growth of Israeli settlements. Khalidi argues that the international community's disregard for Palestinian rights and the absence of consequences for Israel's violations of global norms have fueled radical sentiments and perpetuated the enduring strife between Israelis and Palestinians.

The conflict's course could be altered by shifts in the global power dynamic, particularly in light of the diminishing influence of the United States and the rise of new influential entities in regional and international arenas.

Khalidi holds a cautiously hopeful view, believing that changes in the balance of global power might positively affect the continuous struggle for the protection of Palestinian entitlements. The waning power of the United States, the rise of significant new actors, and the shifting political landscape, coupled with a growing global awareness of the unfairness embedded in Israel's approach, indicate that a transformation could be forthcoming. The author emphasizes that the escalating need for energy in countries like China and India might shift the balance of power in the region by enhancing their economic and diplomatic ties with Arab countries, which could challenge the prevailing influence of the United States.

The possibility of altering the trajectory of the conflict hinges on a renewed focus on international law, in conjunction with Palestinian-led diplomatic initiatives, and persistent actions to challenge the perspective that interprets the conflict as an expression of colonialism.

Khalidi maintains that the Palestinians have suffered greatly because they depended exclusively on a US government that is fundamentally biased as their sole path to peace. The strategy of the Palestinian national movement has failed to yield successful results. Khalidi proposes methods to reshape the ongoing conflict, despite the presence of substantial obstacles that may impede changing the existing state of affairs. The Palestinian leadership needs to settle their internal disputes, forge a path that transcends the unproductive Oslo framework, and embrace a steadfast approach that prioritizes compliance with international law, active political engagement in countries that support Israel, and a continuous challenge to the colonial discourse that defines the struggle. The campaign of the BDS movement has initiated, emphasizing the perspective that the confrontation is not a balanced struggle between two nations but rather one with colonial features. The book highlights the fundamental imbalances embedded within Zionism and illustrates Israel's persistent dependence on international backing, particularly from the United States, to continue its oppression of Palestinian rights and to advance its territorial ambitions throughout Palestine. A tactic that utilizes such approaches to shift perceptions locally and internationally could be crucial in achieving a fair resolution to the longstanding struggle faced by the people of Palestine.

Other Perspectives

• The comparison to the Hundred Years' War may be more metaphorical than literal, as the contexts of medieval European conflict and modern Middle Eastern politics are vastly different.
• Some argue that the ongoing struggle is not only fueled by historical grievances but also by contemporary political, security, and ideological issues that both sides contribute to.
• While dispossession and displacement are significant factors, others suggest that opposition to Israeli policies also stems from broader geopolitical interests and regional dynamics.
• The focus on the events of 1948 might overshadow more recent developments that have shaped the conflict and the opportunities for peace.
• The narrative of national perseverance could be seen as one of many narratives, including those that emphasize peace, coexistence, or reconciliation.
• The shaping of Palestinian identity is complex and multifaceted, with influences beyond the collective experience of displacement and loss.
• Some might argue that the concept of the Nakba, while central to Palestinian identity for many, does not universally define the diverse experiences and perspectives within Palestinian society.
• The difficulty in resolving the conflict could also be attributed to internal divisions within Palestinian leadership and society, which complicate the peace process.
• The characterization of Israeli settlements and policies as akin to apartheid is contested by those who argue that the situation is more nuanced and cannot be accurately compared to the South African precedent.
• The assertion that the international community disregards Palestinian rights is challenged by those who point to significant international aid and diplomatic efforts aimed at supporting the Palestinian cause.
• The potential for shifts in global power dynamics to alter the conflict's course is speculative and does not account for the possibility that new power players may have interests aligned with the current status quo.
• The effectiveness of international law and diplomatic initiatives in resolving the conflict is debated, with some arguing that these tools have limitations and must be complemented by direct negotiations between the parties involved.
• The BDS movement's impact on the conflict is a subject of debate, with critics arguing that it may be counterproductive to peace efforts and could exacerbate divisions.
• The portrayal of the conflict as an expression of colonialism is not universally accepted, with alternative interpretations highlighting national, religious, and historical claims that complicate the colonial narrative.