PDF Summary:The Gates of Europe, by Serhii Plokhy

In The Gates of Europe, Serhii Plokhy presents a deep historical analysis of Ukraine's pivotal role as a passageway connecting the East and West. From ancient times to recent conflicts, the author explores how Ukraine's strategic location fostered an intersection of diverse cultures, making the nation a recurring battleground for competing empires.

Plokhy examines the factors that shaped Ukraine's identity formation, including the adoption of Byzantine Christianity, Mongol invasions, Polish-Lithuanian governance, and the influence of the Russian and Austro-Hungarian empires. He also delves into Ukraine's turbulent path to independence, marked by events like the Holodomor famine, World War II, the Chernobyl disaster, and the eventual dissolution of the Soviet Union.

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During the 16th and 17th centuries, Ukrainians began to foster a distinct self-perception, manage their own affairs, and nurture a sense of nationhood.

In Plokhy's perspective, the 16th and 17th centuries were crucial in establishing new social structures and a shared identity that provided the foundation for the distinctive development of awareness of Ukraine as a nation. The formation of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth via the Union of Lublin led to Polish dominance over most of Ukraine, offering Ukrainian nobility a new political stage for the pursuit of their goals. The Cossacks' influence expanded, marking their rise as a significant force across the social, economic, and political domains of the Commonwealth. The rise in the Cossacks' influence led to several uprisings, which ultimately resulted in the creation of an area where the Cossacks exercised a degree of autonomous governance.

The emergence of Cossack Ukraine took place on the frontier of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth.

A group of independent adventurers known as Cossacks played a crucial role in the expansion of Ukrainian settlements to the east. Plokhy underscores the crucial function of these forces in bolstering the borders of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, repelling Tatar invasions, and challenging the supremacy of the Ottomans in the areas near the Black Sea. They also cultivated a distinct societal and political framework that was instrumental in the development of a renewed sense of national identity throughout Ukraine.

Following the Union of Lublin, the creation of "Polish Rus'" set the stage for the emergence of a distinct political identity in Ukraine.

Plokhy contends that the emergence of a distinct political identity for Ukraine was an unexpected consequence of the Union of Lublin, which brought Ukrainian lands under Polish dominion. The demarcation that initially separated Ukraine from Belarus was originally set between Poland and Lithuania. In the Commonwealth's Ukrainian regions, the prevailing political atmosphere of the time led to a situation where the Orthodox authorities had to distinguish their identity and interests from those of the Polish Catholics and Lithuanians, who were progressively embracing Catholicism.

The emergence of the Cossacks as a prominent social force laid the groundwork for autonomy in politics, society, and religion, challenging the traditional forms of governance and resisting the expansion of the steppes.

The author portrays the Cossacks as challengers to the traditional hierarchies and systems of governance. Their commitment to a democratic military structure and a belief in equality stood in sharp contrast to the hierarchical organization of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. The way Cossacks chose their leaders and structured their military and social groups sparked numerous uprisings, setting the stage for the rise of an almost independent Cossack state.

Bohdan Khmelnytsky's role in leading the Cossack uprising and the establishment of the Hetmanate were pivotal moments in the political and cultural development of Ukraine.

The history of Ukraine recognizes the uprising of the Cossacks led by Bohdan Khmelnytsky in 1648 as a crucial turning point. Khmelnytsky, who was at first a Cossack chieftain loyal to Poland, sparked a rebellion that transformed the political landscape of Eastern Europe, leading to the creation of a Cossack state called the Hetmanate, which possessed a degree of self-governance.

The emergence of a unique Ukrainian state was characterized by a fusion of the Cossacks' military autonomy with the inherited administrative frameworks from the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, leading to the establishment of what was called the Cossack Hetmanate.

The author notes that the Hetmanate was a unique political structure that combined the democratic military traditions of the Cossacks with the administrative and legal practices derived from the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. The composite state formed by the regions of Kyiv, Bratslav, and Chernihiv was under the governance of a leader selected by the Cossack elite. The established system formed military regiments that operated both as governing bodies and combat units, reflecting the autonomous nature of the Cossacks and taking cues from the Ottoman Empire's approach to military governance.

The 1654 accord between Ukraine and Russia signified the beginning of Moscow's ascendancy over Ukraine, a time during which the identities known as "Little Russian" surfaced in addition to the already established Ukrainian and Ruthenian self-identifications.

Plokhy contends that the 1654 treaty marked the beginning of a complex and enduring relationship between Ukraine and Russia, resulting in the Hetmanate falling under the dominion of the Muscovite rulers. Initially intended as a protective measure for the Cossacks against Polish aggression, the agreement eventually led to the diminishment of Ukrainian autonomy and an increase in Russian control. It would also contribute to the emergence of the concept of "Little Russia," a term that would be used for centuries to describe Ukraine and its people, and would later be employed to deny Ukrainians a separate national identity.

Ukraine's battle for sovereignty and the tug-of-war over its territory by rival forces.

The late 17th-century partition of the Hetmanate between Russia and Poland, followed by the late 18th-century partitions of Poland, which led to most of Ukraine falling under Russian dominance, significantly impeded the emergence of a separate Ukrainian national consciousness. Plokhy argues that the development of these divides was instrumental in forming Ukrainian identities and united Ukrainians beyond the freshly drawn lines of imperial and cultural borders.

The division of the Hetmanate into regions under Russian and Polish dominance was instrumental in forming the distinct political and cultural identities of Ukraine's two areas.

Plokhy emphasizes the likelihood of a significant cultural divide if Ukraine were to be divided, with parts being incorporated into Russia and Poland. In the Ukrainian territories under Russian control, enforced integration into Russian societal standards and political consolidation occurred, while the regions administered by Austria fostered a distinct "Ruthenian" identity, emphasizing their Greek Catholic religion to counteract Polish cultural impact.

During the transition from the 17th to the 18th century, Kyiv underwent a revival, solidifying its role as a vital center for the advancement of the Orthodox Church, intellectual endeavors, and the cultivation of Little Russian identity.

The book highlights the revival of Kyiv's political and cultural importance as the 17th century gave way to the 18th. It evolved into a center for academic endeavors and the production of literature within the traditions of the Orthodox faith, attracting intellectuals from different Ukrainian areas. Plokhy explores the influential roles of figures such as Inokentii Gizel, who was in charge of the Kyivan Cave Monastery, and Teofan Prokopovych, who headed the Kyivan College, in fostering a distinct identity that emphasized loyalty to the Russian monarch and simultaneously underscored the common Orthodox heritage of Muscovy and Ukraine.

The Cossack leaders used the notions of "Ukraine" and "homeland" to consolidate their autonomy within the boundaries of the Russian Empire.

Plokhy explores the ways in which Cossack leaders articulated their desire for autonomy by invoking notions related to their homeland and the Ukrainian identity. Amidst a period of internal strife within the Hetmanate and increasing coercion from Moscow, the chieftains of the Cossacks strove to protect their traditional liberties and entitlements by designating their lands as "Cossack Ukraine on both sides of the Dnieper." The author emphasizes the present recognition of Ukraine as having a unique political and cultural identity, which signifies a shift from its previous description as primarily a geographic region.

The division of Poland resulted in the further segmentation of Ukrainian lands, significantly influencing the emergence of contemporary Ukrainian nationalist sentiments.

The late 18th-century division of Polish territories was a pivotal moment that led to Russia's dominance over most Ukrainian regions, significantly influencing the development of Ukrainian national consciousness. Plokhy argues that the emergence of contemporary Ukrainian national awareness was ignited by the erosion of self-governance and the difficulties brought about by the strategies of Russian imperialism. The emergence of a unique national identity was shaped by Enlightenment and Romanticism principles, which proclaimed that a nation is characterized by its own language, traditions, and cultural practices.

The governance of the Habsburgs was instrumental in strengthening a unique "Ruthenian" identity to counter the dominant Polish political and cultural influence in Galicia.

The writer depicts the way in which, despite its imperfections, the administrative system of the Austro-Hungarian monarchy contributed to the cultivation of a distinct "Ruthenian" identity within its Ukrainian subjects. The Austrian support for the Greek Catholic Church and Ukrainian language instruction unintentionally fostered a unique sense of nationhood among the Ukrainians in Galicia. In the Ukrainian territories governed by Russia, the prevailing approach was to impose Russification and vigorously inhibit any manifestation of Ukrainian cultural distinctiveness.

During the early 19th century, Ukraine saw a cultural revival that gave rise to contemporary Ukrainian literary works, a significant gathering of folk traditions, and a marked increase in the prominence of the romantic movement in the nation's cultural expressions.

Serhii Plokhy's analysis highlights how the reemergence of cultural distinctiveness in Ukraine during the early 19th century was instrumental in forming its modern national identity. Ivan Kotliarevsky, Mykola Hohol, and Taras Shevchenko played a pivotal role in laying the foundation of modern Ukrainian literature, while their peers gathered and spread the vast array of Ukrainian folklore and tales, underscoring the uniqueness of the country's cultural legacy. Ukraine experienced a resurgence fueled by a passionate engagement with indigenous folklore and feelings, providing a counterweight to the dominant culture of the Russian Empire.

Ukraine underwent significant transformations and faced numerous challenges during the shift to independence after the dissolution of the Soviet Union.

During the 20th century, Ukraine experienced deep and catastrophic transformations, with the Holodomor at the pinnacle of these sorrows, a famine orchestrated by Stalin's regime between 1932 and 1933, intentionally targeting the people of Ukraine. Plokhy's analysis scrutinizes the influence of Soviet-era tactics on Ukraine, highlighting the interplay between Ukraine's national efforts and Soviet policies and the lasting impact this interplay has on Ukraine's present condition.

The devastating hunger crisis from 1932 to 1933, coupled with the strategies of Ukrainization and collectivization, was instrumental in transforming the collective national identity of Ukrainians.

Plokhy argues that Ukrainian national identity was profoundly influenced by the concerted efforts to enhance culture and the enforcement of communal agriculture, in addition to the devastating consequences of the Great Famine. The strategy of promoting Ukrainian culture and language played a significant role in shaping Ukraine's distinct cultural and linguistic characteristics, yet the forced consolidation of farmlands and the resulting famine wreaked havoc on the rural population and altered the country's traditional social fabric.

During the transitional phase, the Soviet Union's approach of cultivating a Ukrainian communist elite and nurturing a distinct cultural identity aimed to reinforce its political control.

The policy of Ukrainization in the 1920s, as viewed by Serhii Plokhy, was a tactical maneuver by the Soviet authorities to consolidate their control over Ukraine by fostering a communist elite and cultural identity that included national elements. He explores the complex interactions between local communists who championed the promotion of Ukrainian culture and language as a means to further both societal and ethnic liberation, and the centralist faction within the Communist Party, which viewed such promotion as a threat to the Soviet Union's unity.

The Holodomor, also known as the Great Famine, marked a pivotal moment when Soviet ethnic policy shifted towards the curtailment of Ukrainian cultural endeavors and the removal of Ukrainian authorities who resisted the imposition of collective farming.

The Great Famine, known as the Holodomor, which resulted in the death of millions in Ukraine during 1932-1933, is portrayed by the author as a critical juncture in the nationality policy of the Soviet Union and a profoundly distressing occurrence that deeply impacted the societal structure of Ukraine. The artificial famine, resulting from the Soviet authorities' policies of compulsory collectivization and grain seizures, combined with Stalin's equation of opposition with nationalistic sentiment, devastated the rural areas of Ukraine, disrupted the existing social structures, and instilled a profound sense of suspicion and trepidation towards the Soviet regime among the people of Ukraine. Following the famine, Soviet officials began to harshly pursue Ukrainian thinkers and political figures who exhibited signs of nationalism, leading to the cessation of policies that formerly promoted the nurturing and application of Ukrainian cultural and linguistic identity.

During the Second World War, while under Nazi control and experiencing the horrors of the Holocaust, Ukrainian regions became pivotal in nurturing emerging ideologies of Ukrainian nationalism.

The harrowing experiences of World War II and the Holocaust have deeply shaped Ukraine's collective memory of history. Plokhy scrutinizes a tumultuous era in Ukraine's past, characterized by the brutal German occupation, the atrocities of the Holocaust, and the emergence of a radical nationalist faction, epitomized by the establishment of the Organization of Ukrainian Nationalists along with its armed wing, the Ukrainian Insurgent Army.

Ukrainian fighters engaged in intense combat with subversive factions from Germany, the Soviet Union, and Poland as they strove to create an autonomous Ukrainian state.

The book portrays the Ukrainian Insurgent Army (UPA), active in western Ukraine during World War II and the following postwar period, as an organization that sought to achieve Ukrainian independence through armed struggle. The UPA, directed by followers of Stepan Bandera, engaged in a complex and brutal conflict with clandestine factions from the Soviet Union and Poland, employing guerrilla warfare tactics and perpetrating numerous acts of violence in Volhynia and Galicia.

In the period following the dissolution of the Soviet Union, Ukraine has grappled with the enduring impact of the Holocaust, particularly in discussions about the conduct of certain Ukrainians throughout the Second World War.

Plokhy addresses the complex discussions about how Ukraine remembers its involvement in the Holocaust and its period of grieving. He delves into the contrasting behaviors of figures such as Metropolitan Andrei Sheptytsky, who openly condemned the slaughter of Jews and offered them refuge within the walls of religious institutions, and Stepan Bandera, whose followers' participation in the oppression of Jews remains a controversial issue in Ukraine's collective history.

The path to sovereignty for Ukraine was profoundly influenced by its historical experience under Soviet rule.

Ukraine's path to independence was deeply influenced by its historical experience under Soviet governance, according to Plokhy. The autocratic rule imposed by Moscow, coupled with enduring oppression, inflicted deep scars on the social fabric of Ukraine, leading to a pervasive mistrust of Russian motives. Soviet rule, though unintentionally, nurtured a heightened awareness of national identity. The cultural and linguistic homogenization policies of Moscow, combined with the Chernobyl disaster, played a role in creating a shared sense of Ukrainian identity across regional and linguistic divides.

The Chernobyl catastrophe served as a critical catalyst for the rise of social activism and the initiation of political dissent against Soviet governance.

The author highlights that the Chernobyl catastrophe of 1986 served as a pivotal event that sparked social activism and fostered the growth of opposition to Soviet rule in Ukraine. Public anger intensified due to the inept management of the environmental crisis by the national authorities and their attempts to downplay the true extent of the damage, which consequently led to the emergence of new political groups, such as the formation of the Green Party.

The affirmation of independence by Ukraine played a pivotal role in the disintegration of the Soviet Union.

Serhii Plokhy describes the December 1991 decision supporting Ukraine's independence as a pivotal event that freed Ukraine from Soviet dominion and at the same time dealt a decisive strike to the crumbling Soviet state. The widespread desire for sovereignty throughout Ukraine, even in the eastern and southern areas, took Moscow by surprise and thwarted Russia's aspirations to establish a new alliance that would maintain Ukrainian subservience. This vote, driven by widespread disillusionment with Soviet rule and shaped by the clear desire for self-governance apparent in the Baltic region, marked the culmination of Ukraine's extensive and often challenging journey toward independence.