PDF Summary:The Fifties, by David Halberstam

In the wake of World War II, the United States underwent profound changes affecting its politics, culture, economy, and society. The Fifties, by David Halberstam, chronicles this transformative period, revealing how anti-communism fueled paranoia and the hunt for traitors, while the postwar economic boom spawned a rise in consumer culture and a new suburban lifestyle.

The book examines how Cold War rivalries and achievements like the hydrogen bomb and U-2 spy plane shaped America's foreign policy. It also explores milestones in pop culture and media—the rise of television, rock and roll's birth, and innovative leaders in business, marketing, and entertainment.

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Eisenhower initially harbored hopes for post-war reconciliation, but as his presidency progressed, his opposition to Communism seemed to grow stronger. President Eisenhower, leveraging his experience from the post-war demobilization era, believed that overspending on defense might harm the country's economic equilibrium and frequently resisted the intense pressure to invest heavily in unnecessary sophisticated weaponry.

The event at Dien Bien Phu highlighted the contradictions in the United States' strategic policy, marked by the conflicting inclinations of the Dulles siblings to take decisive steps while simultaneously showing hesitation to face the consequences if their actions were unsuccessful, which they ultimately were. This incident also illustrated the way the Cold War created an environment that advantaged the national security apparatus, operating covertly and keeping vital information from journalists and legislators.

The event at Dien Bien Phu underscored the contradictions in the foreign policy approach of Eisenhower's administration, which was marked by a comprehensive plan for Cold War engagement but also by a preference to limit the deployment of American forces and a noticeable hesitancy to get involved directly. General Giap, assured in his leadership, directed the Vietminh troops to surround a French bastion located in a remote area of little strategic value near the border with Laos. Dulles and Radford considered the potential collapse of Dien Bien Phu to be a disastrous occurrence, representing a major defeat for the United States in the context of Cold War pressures, with China reaping the benefits of victory. John Foster Dulles devoted a full two months to the careful guidance and influence of allies, akin to an adept socialite discreetly hinting to a coveted guest about the possible presence of another distinguished individual who has not yet given their RSVP. The first visitor was attracted by a proposal.

The author characterizes Dulles's approach as creating a perception that the Administration was prepared to support the French troops, while concurrently demanding that its allies, particularly the UK, provide a similar level of military support, even though it was expected that they would decline. Halberstam portrays Dulles as skillful in deflecting potential blame and criticism by persuading others to voice opposition to intervention. Eisenhower might have garnered Congressional support had he been firmly determined to intervene in Indochina, but his advisors did not seek such approval, even though the opportunity existed.

The intelligence-gathering flights carried out using the high-altitude U-2 aircraft marked a considerable leap forward in gathering data, exposing the relatively small scale of the Soviet nuclear arsenal during that period. Nevertheless, the classified status of these operations meant that this knowledge was not shared with the general populace and failed to halt the continued growth of the military-industrial complex.

The author describes the development of the U-2 as a remarkable feat of engineering, while also acknowledging its contribution to diplomatic challenges. Johnson, the aeronautics genius from the United States, conceived of an aircraft capable of flying at altitudes and speeds that would allow it to enter Soviet airspace with a significant likelihood of evading danger. Eisenhower proudly proclaimed the cameras' accuracy, claiming they could discern a golf ball on a putting green from an altitude of fourteen miles above the Earth. Halberstam characterizes the event as a significant advancement in the realm of intelligence operations.

And yet its very success posed a problem for Eisenhower, who feared the consequences should one be shot down over Soviet territory. Halberstam emphasizes the importance of the U-2 within a secretive government framework, shedding light on the complex challenges linked to a layered governmental structure. The President's foreign policy decisions were significantly influenced by the intelligence gathered from the U-2 spy plane missions, although this vital data remained undisclosed to the citizenry. The broader public remained unaware of the Soviet military's growth, which came to light through the U-2's revelations.

The U-2 incident with Francis Gary Powers laid bare the fragile state of Cold War diplomacy and maneuvers, marking a crucial juncture that obliterated any remaining opportunity for reconciliation between Eisenhower and Khrushchev, thus guaranteeing the continuation of the Cold War.

The U-2 incident abruptly ended President Eisenhower's attempts to reduce the arms race by convincing Americans that the Soviet threat was exaggerated; it also impeded his efforts to start peace discussions by undermining his relationship with Nikita Khrushchev and diminishing Khrushchev's standing among the hard-liners in the Kremlin. The author describes the occurrence and ensuing developments as a pivotal cultural event. The American public's perspective shifted from confidence in their government's honesty to an increasing worry over the prevalence of deception.

Halberstam illustrates the cascade of mistakes by the CIA and Eisenhower that resulted in a major propaganda defeat for the United States, casting uncertainty on the potential outcomes of the summit. Eisenhower's hopes for better relations with Khrushchev and the diminishment of nuclear arsenals through a test-ban agreement were completely dashed, a situation that was especially humiliating, as per Halberstam's account, considering Eisenhower had fostered a belief in Khrushchev's reliability and was hopeful about their joint efforts to reduce the intensity of the arms race, despite having access to aerial surveillance intelligence. Khrushchev's acquisition of Powers provided him with a significant victory in terms of propaganda, but it also exposed him to potential instability within his political sphere. Halberstam notes that Khrushchev experienced a sense of isolation and was susceptible to the criticism of hard-liners who despised his attempts at engaging with Western powers.

Other Perspectives

• The transformation of politics, ideology, and international relations after World War II was not solely due to the emergence of geopolitical rivalries but also due to decolonization and the rise of non-aligned movements.
• The hunt for alleged communists in the US, while pervasive, can also be seen as a response to genuine security concerns during the Cold War, not merely paranoia or political maneuvering.
• The novel approach to foreign policy by the United States was not entirely novel but had roots in earlier interventionist policies.
• The dominance of anti-communism in US politics may have overshadowed other important social and economic issues that needed attention.
• The US's takeover of the global democratic leadership role from Britain was not just a transfer of power but also involved complex negotiations and the establishment of new international institutions.
• The resistance to New Deal policies in America might be viewed as a conservative correction to what some perceived as an overreach of government power during the Great Depression.
• The unprecedented wealth and international influence of the US post-World War II did not equate to equitable distribution of wealth within the country or a reduction in social inequalities.
• The escalation of concerns and insecurities in the US could be interpreted as a rational response to the uncertainties of the nuclear age and the realpolitik of the Cold War.
• The focus on retribution and the narrative of China's collapse by Republicans could be seen as a legitimate critique of the foreign policy failures of the time.
• The persistence of the Great Depression's shadow could also be seen as a failure of the US to fully address the underlying economic and social issues of the era.
• The emphasis on upholding America's core principles in speeches could be critiqued as sometimes serving as a cover for pursuing policies that were not always in line with those principles.
• The economic boom and the perceived need to compensate for New Deal inequities could be criticized as a failure to recognize the benefits those policies brought to many Americans.
• Joseph McCarthy's tactics, while fostering a wary culture, could also be seen as exploiting legitimate fears of communist infiltration during the Cold War.
• The shift in the Cold War's course due to the Soviet Union's nuclear arsenal could be critiqued as an inevitable outcome of the arms race, which both sides contributed to.
• The inquiries faced by Truman about curbing Communist ideologies could be seen as a necessary check on executive power.
• The US's unique position as the sole possessor of nuclear arms post-World War II could be critiqued as contributing to a false sense of security and moral high ground.
• The development of the hydrogen bomb, while a strategic choice, could be criticized as an escalation of the arms race that increased the risk of nuclear annihilation.
• The US's rapid strategy development in the early Cold War period could be seen as reactive and sometimes lacking in long-term vision.
• The transition of the US into a dominant empire could be critiqued for often prioritizing American interests over the sovereignty of other nations.
• The CIA's role in subverting leaders in Iran and Guatemala could be criticized as undermining democratic principles and leading to long-term negative consequences.
• The unpreparedness of the US Army for the Korean conflict could be seen as a failure of military intelligence and planning.
• General MacArthur's actions in Korea could be critiqued as a failure to adhere to civilian control and a misunderstanding of the geopolitical context.
• The decision to relieve MacArthur could be seen as a necessary assertion of civilian control over the military, despite the public outcry.
• Matt Ridgway's revitalization of the US military force in Korea could be critiqued for not leading to a decisive victory or lasting peace.
• Eisenhower's foreign policy, while cautious, could be criticized for not adequately addressing the root causes of global tensions.
• The Dien Bien Phu incident could be seen as a failure of Western colonial powers to recognize the rising tide of nationalism and anti-colonial sentiment.
• The reliance on the national security apparatus during the Cold War could be critiqued for eroding civil liberties and transparency.
• The intelligence-gathering flights using U-2 aircraft, while advancing knowledge, could be criticized for increasing international tensions and mistrust.
• The U-2 incident could be seen as a failure of diplomatic strategy and risk management.

The rise of suburban living and the growth in consumer culture had a significant impact on the evolving roles of women in society.

The post-war boom in the American economy, driven by inexpensive energy from local oil sources, significantly boosted industrial production and the country's wealth, leading to a rise in consumer expenditure among the working class.

General Motors was the embodiment of American industrial might in that era, surpassing its competitors in overall output and skillfully leveraging the rising prosperity of the United States to create more advanced and expensive vehicles, while also implementing innovative marketing tactics to solidify its dominant status.

During this era of robust economic growth and intense business endeavors, Halberstam points to General Motors as the epitome of America's manufacturing prowess. In the decade of the 1950s, this corporation set a historical benchmark by becoming the first ever to report earnings surpassing one billion dollars, thereby establishing itself as the most significant and prosperous entity of its time.

Halberstam explores the evolving nature of corporate culture, emphasizing how the priorities of the corporation often overshadowed the concerns of the individual workers—this approach, although it enhanced the ability to innovate and produce new products, also cultivated a climate of conformity and reduced passion. The firm's accumulation of wealth culminated in the codification of its previously informal rules. The junior employee was required to instinctively understand the desires of the senior official. The assistant was responsible for making sure that Curtice's favorite starter, smoked oysters, was always on hand at events, and also, the assistant was to stay nearby Curtice. The business executive navigated the gathering, presenting oysters to those present.

The debut of the 1955 Chevrolet model, a symbol of success, highlighted Harlow Curtice's tenure at the helm of the consumer-centric GM, emphasizing his understanding of the seductive appeal of luxury and design, setting him apart from former executives such as Charlie Wilson, who had a notably distinct approach.

Harlow Curtice's rise through the corporate ranks exemplified a major shift in managerial philosophy, placing greater emphasis on consumer preferences and demands rather than the product alone. The author depicts him as the quintessential salesperson, whose expertise lay not in the complexities of automobile engineering, but in understanding the psyche of an expanding group of consumers eager to share in the prosperity of an era marked by economic expansion.

He expressed to his friend Tony De Lorenzo that climbing the success ladder could begin from a position higher than the bottommost steps. As soon as their economic circumstances allow, the typical person looks forward to acquiring a new vehicle and swiftly opts to upgrade to the latest model when possible. Curtice envisioned an enhanced automobile characterized by exceptional workmanship, larger dimensions, a more streamlined appearance, and an engine with augmented horsepower. Halberstam portrays Curtice as someone who considered style to be indicative of a person's social status and saw the corporation as a manifestation of the core principles established by the company's guiding philosophy, which involved the annual introduction of new car models.

Entrepreneurs skilled in targeting the swiftly growing middle-class market initiated a new era through their proficient use of mass production methods, which allowed them to provide products at lower prices.

By adopting assembly line-like production techniques, William Levitt revolutionized the building sector, meeting the urgent housing needs of returning war veterans and their expanding families, and consequently causing a substantial migration from urban centers to the suburbs.

The narrative chronicles the path of an innovative businessperson who, following the creation of temporary airstrips during the global conflict from 1939 to 1945, harnessed the power of assembly-line production to meet the urgent need for housing, driven by lofty goals and a definitive mission. Veterans keen on purchasing homes and settling in suburban neighborhoods faced challenges as the construction sector was impeded by antiquated methods that depended on hard-to-find skilled labor and an inefficient process because it relied on many separate contractors. Before the conflict arose, builders rarely constructed more than a handful of houses each year. Levitt not only anticipated the growing need for homes but also devised a creative strategy to meet the needs of the American populace.

By examining and streamlining every phase of construction, and employing power tools along with prefabricated parts, Levitt significantly reduced expenses and hastened the building timeline, which resulted in the emergence of vast subdivisions such as Levittown, New York. This was the most extensive residential building project in U.S. history, featuring around 17,000 nearly indistinguishable homes constructed on 60’ x 100’ plots situated where potato farms previously existed—marking the initial one among a trio of similar Levittowns.

The emergence of economical retail outlets, which concentrated on minimal pricing and high-volume turnover, mirrored a shift in purchasing behaviors across the country, demonstrating a diminished regard for maintaining the social and economic stature of the elite, as evidenced by the rise of stores like E. J. Korvette.

Entrepreneurs began to tap into the vast market opportunities offered by the growing population of American consumers experiencing unparalleled levels of income and spending. Eugene Ferkauf, an enterprising individual with roots in Brooklyn, was among the trailblazers who understood that the post-war economic climate had liberated Americans both psychologically and economically. Ferkauf's insight into his customers' perspectives was enriched by personal experiences that mirrored their own.

Halberstam documents the impressive growth of E.J. Korvette, starting as a lively store situated at the core of Manhattan in 1948, and evolving into an enormous retail conglomerate spanning the country, boasting revenues of 157 million dollars by the end of the 1950s. Ferkauf, according to Halberstam, eschewed the conventional practices of selling, where products were kept back and selectively distributed to an anticipative customer base. Ferkauf and his colleagues cultivated a shopping environment that encouraged quick, large-scale buying by offering substantial discounts and creating an energetic atmosphere, drawing in patrons, typically from modest backgrounds, eager to take advantage of the outstanding deals even though the setting was plain and unembellished.

The swift proliferation of fast-food establishments, exemplified by the widespread growth of the McDonald's franchise, showcased strategies for streamlining the cooking process and maintaining uniform standards, reflecting the evolving demands of a society on the move that favored longer travel times and a preference for additional leisure over the custom of crafting intricate dishes in the kitchen.

The entrepreneurial prowess is also exemplified by the siblings who established McDonald's. In a humble diner situated in San Bernardino, two entrepreneurs, once noted for their lack of success, found unexpected prosperity by pioneering the industry that Halberstam characterizes as "fast food." They laid the groundwork for mass food production within their households, paving the way for the development of a novel food category emphasizing cost-effectiveness and production on an industrial scale.

Dick McDonald eventually grasped that their business strategy was centered on delivering quick service, ensuring low prices, and generating substantial sales volumes. The author remarks on the rapid sequence of developments and transformations that defined that era. Supermarkets and dime stores were pioneers in adopting the self-service shopping model. The siblings responsible for the McDonald's brand astutely observed the change in American dining preferences, as an increasing number of individuals opted to eat out to suit their hectic schedules, moving away from the longer preparation times associated with conventional meals; they reacted by offering quick, cost-effective food options and by establishing a blueprint for the fast-food franchise network, which fundamentally transformed the nature of American eateries and significantly influenced a multitude of other industries.

The emergence of network television marked a profound transformation in American communication, reflecting a growing pursuit of enhanced comfort and well-being, and it substantially changed the cultural landscape across the nation in numerous aspects.

The rapid fall of the Radio Era signaled the end of a unique, intimate bond between performers and their listeners, highlighted by the waning impact of a notable personality from the past, Fred Allen, who offered comedic commentary on the chase and achievement of the American dream, coinciding with the rise of a bolder and more dominant new medium.

The author chronicles the rapid ascension of broadcast television, which emerged as a powerful symbol and catalyst for profound transformations within American society and culture following the conflict. The personal interactions that were a hallmark of radio, the leading medium for the previous twenty years, swiftly diminished. Television offered immediate visual stimulation, reinforcing the feeling of shared experience among a younger demographic that had little to no recollection of the economic struggles of the 1930s. Halberstam posited that the influence of captivating images on television matched the importance of intellectual substance, and in a like manner, the potency of visual elements was equivalent to the depth of meaningful content.

The period, famous for its significant changes, reached its climax when the epoch characterized by Fred Allen's prominence as a radio comedy legend, celebrated for his sharp wit, came to a close. “Allen's sardonic, dry humor, which had satirized the world as he saw it, became out of sync in an ever more prosperous nation whose people were less interested in making fun of the American dream than partaking of it,” Halberstam writes. Initially hesitant to accept the swift proliferation of television, Allen soon recognized its growing dominance in the marketplace, realizing that this marked the demise of his conventional style. He subsequently recounted observing neatly-coiffed young men moving television cameras into the production areas, which resulted in the displacement of experienced radio broadcasters to the hallways. He likened television to a device that enables passive viewers to watch people who are not involved in productive endeavors.

Milton Berle, who ascended to fame as television's inaugural star, and Elvis Presley, who emerged as the pioneer symbol of rock and roll, illustrate how entertainers who might have once been known only locally or remained unnoticed, achieved broad recognition due to the societal and economic shifts of the time, along with progress in miniaturization and transistor technology.

Milton Berle's rapid rise to fame showcased the power of television to quickly elevate individuals to the status of national symbols. Milton Berle's exuberant style of comedy captivated audiences across the country through his appearances on The Texaco Star Theater, during a time when cable television had not yet become prevalent. At the start of his project, there were roughly half a million television sets in the United States. The program aired on Tuesday evenings by NBC rapidly gained importance following its launch. The story of Berle's program mirrored the early development of television as a medium. Neighbors and friends frequently gathered in homes that had televisions, creating communal entertainment moments that subsequently led to an increase in TV sales; within a span of twelve months, Berle graced the front page of both Time and Newsweek magazines at the same time. He gained widespread recognition during the early years of television.

The rise of the affordable transistor radio, which allowed teenagers to liberate themselves from their parents' control of the family radio and develop their own musical tastes, along with the blending of various popular music styles that combined black rhythm and blues with white gospel, leading to the birth of the new "rockabilly" genre, significantly benefited a prominent figure in the music industry. Halberstam notes that in the expanding rock and roll landscape, the influencers of public sentiment transitioned from conventional authorities such as mayors and parents to radio hosts who became champions of adolescent independence, guiding young people to their newfound rock and roll heroes. Adolescents formed unique social groups, and with his magnetic allure, fusion of various musical styles, and unmistakable erotic appeal, Presley emerged as the quintessential symbol of this cultural shift.

The transformation in American political operations and communication signified a profound and lasting shift from a time when ideological influence was of utmost importance to a period where the impact of visual imagery became equally, if not more, significant, highlighted by the ascent of the Senator from Tennessee to prominence via the Kefauver hearings on organized crime.

Television served as more than just a source of entertainment; in 1951, Sen. Estes Kefauver utilized the burgeoning influence of television to achieve nationwide prominence by conducting a probe into the criminal underworld. The Democratic party, while grappling with numerous challenges highlighted in the hearings, found itself with a senator from Tennessee, previously not as prominent, suddenly gaining widespread attention. Halberstam emphasizes that the true importance of the Kefauver hearings was not so much in their influence on policing or the recording of criminal activity, but rather in the way they shaped the evolution of television.

Kefauver's victory stood out even more because he achieved it without seeking television publicity. Kefauver, who was certainly not one to avoid public attention, almost missed the chance to realize that the hearings would be televised. The hearings, which unfolded like a play disclosing the characteristics of both criminals and legislators, enthralled viewers and signified one of the earliest major milestones within the realm of television. The author depicts the sudden shift of people to various enclosed areas, including the intimate settings of homes, public drinking establishments, spaces reserved for members, large venues for gatherings, and secluded administrative areas. The country's attention was singularly fixated on one particular matter. The investigation conducted by Congress played a significant role in shaping the national conversation about criminal activities that extended beyond state boundaries.

The approach to marketing, as demonstrated by a prominent individual in the industry, was based on the conviction that clear and regular interaction had the greatest effect, particularly when it resonated with the consumers' profound aspirations.

The transformation of the American political landscape, as observed by Halberstam, commenced with Eisenhower's bid for the presidency under the Republican banner in 1952, subsequently leading to a shift that sparked apprehension amidst the burgeoning popularity of quiz shows and sitcoms focused on family life. In the realm of television commercials, it was pioneers like Rosser Reeves who spearheaded their development, as opposed to the expected cultural critics or political figures. Halberstam describes Reeves as having a distinctive knack for pinpointing the essential qualities of a product and then marketing it distinctly to differentiate it from competitors' offerings.

Reeves was of the opinion that the essence of advertising lay in consistently instilling the advantages of his clients' products into consumer consciousness, with an emphasis on a singular, often highlighted characteristic known as the 'unique selling proposition' or USP, rather than advancing public welfare. David Halberstam depicted him as a master of aggressive advertising tactics, underscoring the direct relationship between the conspicuousness of advertising and its success. He compared his method of crafting television commercials to mule training tactics, convinced that this was the most effective strategy for rapidly generating compelling ads, especially when it came to the realm of political advertising.

The less savory aspects were connected with the realm of television broadcasting.

Other Perspectives

• The impact of suburban living and consumer culture on women's roles may be more complex, with some arguing that it led to increased domesticity and reduced women's participation in the workforce until later feminist movements.
• The post-war economic boom did not benefit all classes and demographics equally, and some groups, such as racial minorities, often did not enjoy the same level of prosperity.
• General Motors' success may have come at the expense of smaller competitors and could be critiqued for promoting a car-centric culture with long-term environmental impacts.
• The corporate culture at General Motors, while successful, may have stifled individual creativity and contributed to a less inclusive work environment.
• Harlow Curtice's focus on consumer preferences could be critiqued for encouraging materialism and planned obsolescence.
• Mass production methods, while efficient, can lead to environmental degradation and a loss of craftsmanship in products.
• The suburban housing boom led by William Levitt often excluded minorities and contributed to urban sprawl.
• Retail outlets like E.J. Korvette may have hurt small, local businesses and contributed to a homogenization of consumer culture.
• The rise of fast-food establishments is often criticized for contributing to health issues like obesity and for environmental concerns related to industrial food production.
• Network television's influence on culture can be seen as homogenizing and contributing to a passive consumption of entertainment.
• The decline of the Radio Era and the rise of television may have led to a loss of certain forms of cultural expression and a decrease in the diversity of content.
• The fame of individuals like Milton Berle and Elvis Presley could be critiqued as part of a celebrity culture that values entertainment over substance.
• The use of television for political operations could be seen as prioritizing image over policy and contributing to a less informed electorate.
• Marketing strategies that focus on consumer interaction and unique selling propositions can be critiqued for manipulating consumer desires and reinforcing consumerist values.
• The less savory aspects of television broadcasting, such as the potential for spreading misinformation or the prioritization of profit over quality content, are often subjects of criticism.