PDF Summary:The Better Angels of Our Nature, by Steven Pinker

Throughout history, violence has been humanity's norm—from wars and genocide to personal acts of cruelty. In The Better Angels of Our Nature, Steven Pinker examines how violence has declined over time, even as populations grew. He explores the Civilizing Process that transformed European cultures from the Middle Ages onward, replacing a "culture of honor" with modern sensibilities toward human rights.

Pinker surveys humanity's evolving moral perspectives, from the acceptance of slavery and inhumane punishments to the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. He draws on Enlightenment philosophies and recent trends like democracy, free trade, and international organizations to analyze the modern "Long Peace" between developed nations.

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The judiciary began to adopt a more stringent approach to violent behavior, simultaneously bolstering its own integrity, a change shaped by the increasingly forward-thinking attitudes of the populace, particularly within the ranks of women and individuals who reached maturity during the 1960s. The substantial rise in imprisonment rates, although controversial, served as a deterrent by effectively isolating the more troublesome lawbreakers from society. The growth and enhanced skill in law enforcement resulted in a more pervasive community presence, dedicated to maintaining social norms and combating unruly behavior. The justice system began to establish its foundational dependability by introducing uniform, less severe punishments for lesser violations, rather than dispensing harsh penalties for the most serious crimes in an arbitrary manner. Citizens, influenced by a culture increasingly averse to violence, initiated their own efforts to improve society, working alongside law enforcement and welfare agencies to establish safer conditions for women, minorities, children, members of the LGBTQ+ community, and individuals affected by aggressive behavior. The resurgence of civility in the 1990s is marked by a reduction in crime and by lasting cultural movements that epitomize individual liberty and the articulation of one's identity, hallmarks that were particularly emblematic of the 1960s and 1970s.

During the 17th and 18th centuries, Western societies underwent a significant shift in perspective, leading to the elimination of many brutal customs that had been deeply rooted in civilized life for millennia, coupled with a growing repugnance toward milder types of aggression.

Steven Pinker suggests that the reduction in different types of violence cannot be attributed only to the development of strong governments and prosperous economies, as these elements did not directly resolve the longstanding violent customs in Europe. Violence began to decline in the 17th century and this trend continued into the 18th century, remaining until today. The commencement of the Humanitarian Revolution signified a transformative period where the value of human dignity and the sanctity of life gained prominence, and the reliance on reason and empirical evidence began to supersede traditional practices and convictions in the governance of societal issues. This change did not occur as a result of a single, isolated incident. The progression spanned multiple centuries, with uneven advancements, and occasionally faced setbacks and significant resistance. In this significant period, researchers have noted an increase in joint initiatives aimed at reducing or completely eliminating many types of violence once considered an inescapable, albeit regrettable, part of life.

The cessation of activities like the ritual killing of humans, the persecution of individuals for sorcery, and the false accusation of using human blood in rituals reflects the evolution of collective ethical and intellectual perspectives.

Pinker begins his examination by discussing a significant shift in human values, focusing on a form of officially approved violence that seems incredibly barbaric from a contemporary perspective, given its widespread acceptance for millennia: the execution of people for beliefs that defy reason. Accusations related to the ceremonial use of blood frequently led to the commencement of witch hunts and purges. Monarchs and spiritual leaders in past societies often reinforced their authority by creating systems that demanded respect for gods, often justifying their rulings with references to holy scriptures, particularly the Old Testament. Societal rules and the whims of those with authority frequently took precedence over the value of human life, which could be easily sacrificed to appease a ruler's fancies or to meet the demands of a sacrificial ritual to a god.

Over numerous generations, people have gradually evolved from a primitive mindset, a process described by the scholar Steven Pinker. As individuals encountered a reduced likelihood of dying violently, they became increasingly disposed to recognize and respect the inviolability of other people's lives. As individuals expanded their understanding of the world's mechanics, they deduced from their observations that superstitions did not have a solid foundation. As they became more educated, literate, and acquainted with a range of societies that held different beliefs and customs, and as they shifted from relying exclusively on nearby religious leaders for knowledge, they began to realize that the murder of children, the infliction of suffering, or the execution of those considered different, along with the subjugation of individuals with differing convictions, were detrimental to their prosperity and welfare.

Steven Pinker examines the decline in European witch hunts, the cessation of suttee customs in India, and the global decrease in the practice of human sacrifices prior to the 19th century. The discontinuation of certain customs occurred at times through the actions of European missionaries, yet often it happened independently of any outside intervention. People with a heightened sense of empathy are profoundly troubled by those who continue to engage in such savage acts. Our movement beyond unfounded beliefs and inflexible principles is shaped by numerous elements that correspond with our noblest characteristics, according to Pinker's theory. These encompass historical experiences that discredited superstitious beliefs, an escalating commitment to the substantiation of knowledge through empirical means instead of reliance on faith and doctrine, a broadening of international consciousness that allowed individuals to see beyond the confines of their own tribal or familial ties, and a heightened capacity for empathy that rendered the distress of others more conspicuous and made the act of taking their lives more difficult to defend.

The decrease in violent acts toward individuals punished for heresy, dissent, or apostasy is associated with an increase in critical thinking and skepticism, which in turn reduces the inclination to devalue the existence of individuals with dissenting views.

Violence rooted in religious motives takes place when people believe that holding wrong beliefs justifies punishment. Pinker notes that such actions are simply aggression manifested in various ways, justified by unfounded convictions. For many years, people believed that deviating from their community's religious tenets could endanger their everlasting destiny and similarly bring harm to their entire community. Advocates of a particular ideology felt the need to persuade others of its veracity and to quell any opposing opinions. Since it is impossible to substantiate a faith-based belief, one might instead rely on coercion, which is akin to persuading others by menacing their physical well-being. The initial chapter underscores that the Hebrew Scriptures and the Christian New Testament support belief systems that sanction the killing of those who deviate from accepted norms, which has historically resulted in countless massacres, pervasive strife, ethnic cleansing, religious inquisitions, and the hunting of alleged witches, especially in Europe, but also in countries governed by Islamic law and around the world.

Steven Pinker suggests that the decline in violent acts driven by religious convictions can be attributed to a heightened appreciation for human existence and happiness, along with a greater adoption of logical reasoning and inquisitive analysis. The broad agreement that arose from the brutality of the Religious Wars crystallized into the principle "cuius regio, eius religio," which, though in a moderated version, was incorporated into the 1648 Peace of Westphalia, an accord that was explicitly denounced by the pope. In later periods, enlightened thinkers increasingly acknowledged that one could lead a moral life based purely on reason, without relying on the conviction that Jesus is a savior. They rejected the idea that taking a life or oppressing an individual could be excused by religious convictions, laying the foundation for the widely embraced concepts of religious liberty and secular governance that are prevalent in contemporary cultures. As empathetic understandings and ideas slowly became more prevalent, there was a notable transformation in Western ethical viewpoints that played a role in the abolition of slavery, the decline of despotic governance, the discontinuation of savage penalties, and a marked decrease in the frequency of significant conflicts.

The book explores the gradual disappearance of harsh punishment practices, once widely endorsed, through the evolution of thoughtful discussion, ethical contemplation, and the efforts of advocates for compassion.

Pinker notes that even though the severe violence that was once sanctioned by religious institutions has decreased, the infliction of strict penalties continued to be seen as commonplace, akin to the way one perceives bad weather or congested roads. Spectators flocked to the Colosseum in Rome, where they were enthralled by the gruesome spectacles of extended suffering, which included prolonged agony and disfigurement, all in the name of entertainment for the masses. Three distinct factors constituted the foundation for this line of thought. To deter individuals from certain actions, the repercussions must be sufficiently grave to surpass the allure of the temptations. In communities without strong legal frameworks, it was essential to administer penalties that would be witnessed by the populace and deter future wrongdoing for years to come. People found amusement in watching others endure pain, delighting in the anguish shared by both animals and humans for comparable motives.

Steven Pinker attributes the reduction in violent occurrences to a unified philosophy that took shape during the Age of Reason and the Enlightenment. When individuals in power started considering the welfare of those beneath them in addition to their own or that of their peers, they moved away from harsher forms of punishment, much like modern society has ceased activities such as cockfighting and bearbaiting. Authors and thinkers who cast doubt on the efficacy of torture and other inhumane penalties found their views welcomed by a society growing increasingly accepting of diverse individuals and thoughts, along with the works of philosophers and novelists who started to examine the moral landscape with a perspective informed by scientific and empirical scrutiny. The understanding of governance transformed, acknowledging its role in improving the well-being of the populace, shifting away from its initial purpose of enforcing the will of a ruler. This evolution brought about the realization that its primary objective is to protect the individual's entitlements to existence, freedom, and the quest for joy, instead of causing suffering or serving as amusement. The transformation was formalized by enacting legislation and by setting progressive benchmarks. The establishment of the first urban policing bodies and the comprehensive reform of criminal laws were significantly influenced by statutory enactments and societal discussions.

Capital punishment, previously imposed for even trivial offenses, has experienced a marked decline, though the United States continues to be a notable exception.

In contemporary Western cultures, the cessation of savage punishments and torture has prompted a thorough scrutiny of capital punishment. The shift from prolonged and agonizing executions, such as immolation, to techniques that rapidly induced loss of consciousness, like hanging or the guillotine, was regarded as a more compassionate approach in that era. However, Pinker argues that the real progress beginning in the 18th century was in limiting the authority of the state to take a person's life, regardless of the technique used.

Historically, the judicial framework acknowledged numerous offenses for which the penalty could be death, ranging from actions as trivial as spreading gossip, chastising others, making derogatory remarks about the sovereign's horticultural skills, or, as referenced in sacred texts, committing blasphemy, engaging in same-sex relations, and laboring on a day dedicated to religious observance. During the 18th century, public executions were common events that took place in areas like market squares or adjacent to city halls, often resembling celebratory gatherings. Since the 18th century, society has seen a marked decrease in the range of crimes that could result in capital punishment and in how often it was carried out, a change driven by an increased societal focus on the importance of human life and worries about the fairness of rapid trials and executions. Although there were exceptions in certain countries, notably Nazi Germany, which put to death more than 10,000 people each year during its dozen years of rule, the broader trend in history was still apparent. In the latter part of the 20th century, nations in Western Europe either abolished capital punishment or, like the Netherlands and Belgium, abstained from carrying out any executions for an extended period.

Although the United States diverges from the broader trend, signs of progress are still evident within the nation. Although there was an increase in the use of the death penalty in the 1980s and 1990s, a period marked by rising criminal activity, the frequency of executions has markedly decreased and currently constitutes a tiny fraction of the figures recorded in earlier centuries. In the 18th century, the variety of crimes punishable by death noticeably diminished. Since the 1960s, the imposition of the death penalty has been predominantly reserved for homicide cases, even though it is also legally sanctioned for acts of treason and espionage.

Human history has seen a significant decline in the institution of slavery, influenced by economic factors and a deep-seated change in moral perspectives concerning the possession of human beings.

The concept that every individual has the right to freedom from being owned by another may appear obvious in modern times, yet it represented a profound shift from historical norms. In many early societies and African kingdoms, as well as among the Babylonians and Hebrews, the institution of slavery was deeply rooted and prevalent long before the commencement of the slave trade. The revered scriptures of both Jewish and Christian faiths, as well as distinguished thinkers from ancient times, have maintained this concept as essential for the maintenance of a society characterized by politeness and good manners. In the 18th century, England and its colonies considered it completely acceptable to regard individuals as property, often exposing them to conditions akin to those endured by livestock.

The first coordinated actions aimed at eradicating slavery emerged at the transition from the 18th to the 19th century, spearheaded by organizations established by Quakers and diverse alliances driven by religious, political, intellectual, and humanitarian reasons. Pinker underscores the point that the movement to abolish slavery was driven by ethical considerations and economic logic, highlighting the inherent immorality of one person possessing another and the fact that voluntary labor is more efficient than coerced work. The debate on morality was profoundly shaped by references to historical resistance against despotism and cruel punishment, as well as by individual stories that highlighted the barbarity intrinsic to the tradition. Understanding the perspectives of people from the past who supported such reprehensible acts is difficult. Should we question people from bygone eras regarding their stance on slavery, they might lack the ability to justify it on moral grounds, yet they would likely point out that it has been a longstanding tradition.

Historical data suggests that with the decline of authoritarian rule, there has been a parallel decrease in violent acts, coinciding with the growing acceptance of the principle that the purpose of governments is to serve their people, a notion that took root during the Enlightenment.

Pinker suggests that once a government effectively curtails intertribal conflicts and plundering, the primary forms of human aggression shift to those sanctioned by authoritarian regimes and the state itself. Throughout its history, humankind has suffered under the tyranny of authoritarian rulers who imposed their will as though it were law. From ancient periods, conventional communities have supported harsh penalties to deter and control misconduct, operating under the belief that imposing severe difficulties on others was not deemed unethical. In Europe, the frequently oppressive rule of kings, often allied with the church and its strict legal framework, quelled conflicts among the nobility and religious groups, both of which were known for their oppressive behaviors. Rulers possessed the authority to abuse their subjects, seize their possessions, or enlist them for military service to advance their own personal ambitions and vendettas. Transitions in authority often led to conflicts regarding succession and instances of politically motivated murder.

The Enlightenment's remarkable achievement was the diminishment of this arbitrary authority. Enlightenment thinkers regarded governance as a construct of humanity designed to enhance the welfare of society, rather than an unquestionable given. Governments emerged naturally and without formal planning, a fact that predates written history, which required a substantial change in viewpoint. Reflecting on the contracts that rational people would agree to in a hypothetical state without existing social frameworks, philosophers, including those who laid the groundwork for constitutional governance, devised new systems for distributing power and protecting people from both each other and potential abuses by the state.

The philosophy of liberal democracy, which shapes the modern concept of the state, posits that the power of those who govern is restricted and is exercised only with the approval of those they govern. The contemporary definition of citizenship includes the belief that every person is entitled to live peacefully, experience liberty, and have self-determination, and it is anticipated that these rights will be protected and maintained by those in power. The Enlightenment introduced the idea that society operates on a collective agreement, which redefined the notion of governance from an exclusive right to a shared duty.

The prevalence of conflict, once a routine aspect of statecraft, has seen a decline, in part because of an increased recognition of its ethical shortcomings and the compelling counsel of Immanuel Kant to make it a less attractive option.

Warfare was traditionally regarded as an unavoidable element of a country's reality, similar to taxes and weather patterns. The subject, frequently debated and unresolved, would periodically intensify and was an experience that everyone had to occasionally withstand. Historical figures known as "the Great" did not earn their distinction through contributions to art or scholarly pursuits. Rulers expanded their territories and established dominion over the people within, thus granting their countries the dubious distinction of being acknowledged as a significant power on the world stage. The quest for territorial gain, wealth, the removal of rivals, and the attainment of status has historically propelled warfare, with ethical considerations providing little resistance to an activity that advantaged rulers at the expense of their citizens' lives.

During the 17th and 18th centuries, a number of influential intellectuals began to question and denounce the practice of using war as a means to inflict mass mortality. Jonathan Swift's satirical creations skillfully guided readers into fantastical worlds, offering a new vantage point from which to view the ridiculousness of societal conventions. Authors could critically depict conflict without fear of being accused of disloyalty or treason by political authorities. A few progressive academics started to contend that war, driven by avarice and resulting in the anguish and demise of non-combatants, was not just unethical but also illogical, considering that the benefits derived from plundering were negligible in a community that was becoming more dependent on technological and economic advancements. The principle of amicable exchange is now recognized, acknowledging that trade is mutually beneficial and a preferable option to dominance or aggression among trading entities.

Immanuel Kant's intellectual legacy distinctly signifies a departure from the traditional warrior ethos. In his 1795 work "Perpetual Peace," Kant not only presented a case on moral grounds in opposition to warfare but also proposed a strategy to diminish its frequency by changing the incentives that drive nations. Pinker highlights that Kant's vision for a peaceful framework was built on three key components: the expansion of democratic rule, the increase in economic interconnectedness, and the creation of international organizations, which are together often known as the Kantian triangle.

Since the end of World War II, there has been a remarkable era of peace among the world's leading powers and Western European countries, often referred to simply as a prolonged period of harmony.

In this chapter, Pinker seeks to reveal a crucial juncture often referred to as the Extended Tranquility period in human history. Following the end of World War II, Western Europe's primary nations and their citizens have enjoyed a time free from the devastation of war. Since that period, the world has not seen any global military conflicts, representing a notable change from past regularity, along with a change in societal attitudes towards war, underscored by the elimination of compulsory military enlistment, reduced spending on defense, and a broad disapproval of nuclear weapons. Steven Pinker examines various theories that have been suggested to explain this notable trend and concludes that each likely contains elements of truth. The concept that a prolonged period of peace supports and confirms, albeit belatedly, Kant's centuries-old theory that the proliferation of democracy, open markets, and global collaboration could reduce, and perhaps ultimately eliminate, the inclination of rulers to start wars between nations.

Tools commonly employed to interpret and assess historical accounts often emphasize the illustration and quantification of violent trends.

Pinker begins his discourse by contrasting the instinctive tendency to understand history via storytelling with a different method that emphasizes empirical evidence and the use of statistical evaluation. Historical narratives enrich the bare bones of historical data, but they often contain inaccuracies because we have a habit of attributing patterns and meanings to past events, which might actually be the result of significant incidents, random occurrences, and our natural inclination to assign order and purpose to what is fundamentally a disorderly universe. Statistics aid historians in avoiding misconceptions, but without additional context, they only show whether numerical values have risen, fallen, or stayed the same. Pinker argues that understanding a decline in violence over time necessitates the use of statistical methods to counteract biases from narratives, along with the application of storytelling to interpret the figures.

Was the 20th century truly characterized by the most extreme atrocities? The idea that the 20th century was unparalleled in violence might be misunderstood if one takes into account the breadth of historical records, the growth in global population, and a narrow perspective on historical events.

Many scholars share the view that the levels of violence in the 20th century were unparalleled. The idea that our times are characterized by a rise in malevolence is probably mistaken, particularly when taking into account three deceptive factors: the tendency to more readily recall recent incidents, the growth in worldwide population, and the lack of an all-encompassing historical perspective. The writer argues that our inclination to vividly recall certain incidents can cause us to overestimate their occurrence, which is why the two world wars and the horrors associated with them are often more highlighted than the equally savage and extensive slaughters of bygone eras.

The analysis conducted by Steven Pinker, which adjusts the death tolls from historical conflicts and acts of violence to reflect the population sizes of those eras, suggests that these incidents are comparable to the most devastating events of the twentieth century. Considering the entire global population, the event in 8th-century China known as the An Lushan Revolt and Civil War stands as the most devastating occurrence documented in history.

Other Perspectives

• While violent incidents may have declined in some measures, the nature of violence has evolved with technology, leading to concerns about cyber warfare, drone strikes, and other forms of violence that may not be accounted for in traditional measures.
• The formation of early states and the reduction in violence may not account for the violence perpetrated by states themselves, including colonization, genocide, and state-sponsored violence.
• The idea that established states are calmer may overlook the internal violence and oppression that can occur within authoritarian or even democratic states.
• The rise in authoritarian governance alongside a decrease in violent incidents may not consider the potential for state violence to be underreported or not classified as traditional violence.
• The significant decrease in European homicide rates may not fully account for the global impact of European actions, including wars, colonization, and the transatlantic slave trade.
• The decline in European homicide rates attributed to robust government institutions and trade may not consider the externalization of violence to colonies and other parts of the world.
• The observation that violent conduct has diminished among society's elite may overlook white-collar crimes and other non-violent but harmful actions that can have widespread societal impacts.
• The spread of civilization from Europe worldwide may be criticized for framing history from a Eurocentric perspective and not fully acknowledging the contributions and histories of non-European societies.
• The Civilizing Process in the United States and the cultural values of honor and retribution may not account for the systemic issues and historical context that contribute to violence in certain regions.
• The deterioration in social standards in the 1960s may be seen as an oversimplification of complex social changes and may not recognize the positive social advancements of the era.
• The decline in crime in the 1990s attributed to improved policing and self-control may not consider other factors such as economic changes, demographic shifts, and the impact of new laws and sentencing guidelines.
• The shift in perspective during the 17th and 18th centuries may not fully acknowledge the continued existence of brutal customs and aggression in various forms, including colonialism and slavery.
• The cessation of certain violent activities may not consider the ways in which violence has been transformed or displaced rather than eliminated.
• The decline in violent acts toward heretics, dissenters, or apostates may not recognize ongoing persecution for beliefs in many parts of the world.
• The disappearance of harsh punishment practices may overlook the continued use of inhumane punishment in some legal systems and the rise of mass incarceration.
• The decline in capital punishment may not consider the ethical debates surrounding life imprisonment and other severe penalties that continue to be imposed.
• The decline in the institution of slavery may not fully address the legacy of slavery and ongoing forms of human exploitation, such as human trafficking and forced labor.
• The decline of authoritarian rule and the Enlightenment principle of governments serving people may not account for the persistence of authoritarianism and the challenges to democracy in the modern era.
• The decline in the prevalence of conflict may overlook the ongoing conflicts, civil wars, and the impact of military interventions around the world.
• The era of peace since World War II may not consider the numerous proxy wars, regional conflicts, and the impact of the Cold War.
• The use of statistical tools to assess historical violence may not capture the qualitative aspects of violence and its impact on societies and individuals.
• The characterization of the 20th century in terms of violence may not consider the context of previous centuries' lower population densities and the different capacities for violence at those times.