PDF Summary:Persians, by Lloyd Llewellyn-Jones

From the nomadic tribes that traversed the Iranian plateau, to the rise and fall of the Achaemenid Persian Empire, Persians by Lloyd Llewellyn-Jones explores the evolution of this powerful ancient civilization. This book traces the strategies and cultural exchanges that shaped Persia, the sophisticated systems of administration and law that made it thrive, and the cultural achievements—from monumental palaces to complex religious practices—that demonstrated the kings' imperial might.

Llewellyn-Jones also examines the internal conflicts and external pressures that led to Persia's decline, as well as its enduring legacy that continued to shape Iranian identity through the Islamic Revolution and into the modern era. This in-depth analysis reveals how the Persian Empire arose from humble origins to become one of the ancient world's most influential empires.

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A scheme implemented to improve the workforce by encouraging selective breeding.

The author reveals a strategic initiative implemented by Persian authorities aimed at increasing the kurtash population and ensuring a consistent supply of laborers. Llewellyn-Jones presents substantiation that the meticulous records of supplies designated for pregnant and breastfeeding women, as documented in the Persepolis Fortification archives, suggest a deliberate effort to encourage reproduction within the kurtash community.

Context

• Similar practices of encouraging population growth for labor purposes have been documented in other ancient civilizations, reflecting a common strategy to address workforce needs.
• Women in the Persian Empire played a crucial role in the labor force, and their ability to reproduce was seen as essential for maintaining a steady supply of workers.
• Encouraging reproduction within a specific community could have social implications, affecting family structures, community dynamics, and the status of women within the kurtash class.

The examination of the concept of kurtash in Persian culture and how it contrasts with the Greco-Roman perspectives on slavery.

The author addresses the complex issue of whether kurtash can be classified as slavery. He notes that while some scholars are inclined to believe that kurtash was mandatory service, the recorded cases of forced relocation, intentional population management, and the distribution of supplies indicate that it was fundamentally a type of bondage. The concluding evaluation posits that, while the Achaemenid society did not depend as extensively on slavery as the Roman Empire, it nevertheless held significant importance in their economic framework.

Practical Tips

• Create a discussion group with friends or colleagues to talk about the concept of mandatory service in modern contexts, such as compulsory education or military service. Each member could research a different aspect of mandatory service and share their findings. This collective exploration can lead to a deeper understanding of how mandatory service functions in society today and its parallels with historical practices like kurtash.
• Start a personal project to map resource distribution in your community using a simple spreadsheet. Track where supplies like food banks, free clinics, and shelters are located, and compare this to where they might be most needed. This exercise can help you grasp the complexities of supply distribution on a small scale, mirroring larger-scale scenarios.
• Create a journal to track instances where you feel your freedom is compromised. Note the situations, your feelings, and the people involved. Over time, this can help you spot trends and decide on actions to take to improve your sense of personal freedom. For instance, if you consistently feel limited in your workplace, you might identify specific changes you can request or decide it's time to seek a new job.
• Encourage critical thinking in your social circle by initiating conversations about the diversity of ancient societies. Use the Achaemenid society as a starting point to discuss how different labor systems and societal structures have evolved over time. This can lead to a broader discussion on the variety of ways societies can be organized beyond what is commonly taught or understood.
• Create a personal "economic importance" inventory by listing items in your home and researching their historical and current economic significance. This exercise can help you understand the evolution of economic value and the reasons behind it, much like understanding the significance of Kurtash.

The cultural, social, and artistic achievements of the Achaemenid emperors were a demonstration of their imperial power.

This section explores the diverse range of cultural activities and artistic endeavors that flourished throughout the Achaemenid Empire's period of dominance. Llewellyn-Jones investigates the symbolic and political significance of the Persian royal harem, scrutinizes the lavish estates and terrains crafted to demonstrate the ruler's control over the land, and probes into the diverse religious practices of Persia.

The harem of the empire was emblematic of Persian imperial power.

This section explores the various roles that the Persian Empire's harem played in their society. Lloyd Llewellyn-Jones challenges the widely held perception that the harem is merely a place of excessive luxury and carnal excess. He delves into the complex layers of societal hierarchy, highlighting the vital part that royal women and their consorts play in ensuring the continuation of the bloodline and representing the power of the monarchy.

The importance of hierarchical position within the organized framework of the imperial harem.

The author explores the intricate social hierarchy of the harem, encompassing the king's consorts, children, attendants, and eunuch protectors, all of whom dwell in proximity to the ruler. Lloyd Llewellyn-Jones clarifies that an individual's influence, governance, and resource allocation within the harem were intimately connected to their social hierarchy, and he also explores the complex interactions between the consorts, concubines, and high-ranking women. Llewellyn-Jones highlights the importance of individuals like Irdabama and, by examining the Persepolis Fortification Tablets, shows that her importance was not limited to her lineage as a progenitor of King Darius; she was also in charge of vast estates and a large workforce, demonstrating the considerable economic and political influence wielded by female members of the royal family.

Practical Tips

• Adopt a strategy game mindset when navigating social or workplace situations, considering moves and countermoves based on hierarchical positions. Think of it as a chess game where each piece has a specific role and power; by understanding each person's 'position,' you can better strategize your interactions and decisions. For instance, if you're seeking a promotion, you might align yourself with colleagues who have influence over the decision-making process.
• You can analyze your workplace dynamics by mapping out the informal hierarchy. Start by observing who influences decisions, who is sought out for advice, and who seems to be at the periphery of decision-making. This can help you understand the power structure within your organization and navigate it more effectively.
• Create a personal influence plan by setting specific goals to improve your standing in social or professional hierarchies. Identify key individuals whose support or mentorship could help you, and strategize ways to earn their trust and respect. This could involve taking on tasks that showcase your strengths or finding common interests to build rapport.
• Enhance your social awareness by keeping a journal where you note observations about interactions in groups you're part of, such as family gatherings, social clubs, or team projects. Pay special attention to how people with different levels of status communicate and influence each other. Reflecting on these notes can increase your sensitivity to the subtleties of group dynamics and improve your ability to navigate them effectively.
• Identify the Irdabamas in your social circles to better navigate and foster relationships. Just as Irdabama plays a significant role in the harem, there are often unsung heroes in social and work environments who hold groups together. Start by observing group dynamics to pinpoint who these individuals are—those who facilitate communication, mediate conflicts, or are go-to persons for advice. Once identified, make an effort to acknowledge their contributions, build a rapport with them, and learn from their approach to maintaining group cohesion.
• Create a personal legacy plan that outlines how you want to be remembered. Reflect on the values and achievements you want to be known for, much like Irdabama's legacy extends beyond her familial connections. Write down your goals, the steps you'll take to achieve them, and share this plan with a trusted friend or mentor for accountability.
• Volunteer to coordinate a community project to practice workforce management. This could be organizing a neighborhood clean-up or a local fundraiser. Through this, you'll gain experience in motivating volunteers, allocating tasks, and managing a project from start to finish. The skills acquired here, such as communication, team-building, and task delegation, are directly applicable to managing a larger workforce.
• Start a book club focused on historical fiction or non-fiction that highlights the role of women in power. This can provide a deeper understanding of how women have historically exerted influence in various settings, similar to the royal harem. Through discussions, you can draw parallels between the strategies used by these women and modern-day tactics for exerting influence in social or professional circles.

The importance of marrying within the same social echelon to secure alliances was underscored by the crucial role that royal consorts played in maintaining the dynasty's succession.

Llewellyn-Jones explores the crucial role played by the dynasty's women in ensuring the preservation and maintenance of the family lineage. He emphasizes the practice of the Achaemenid dynasty to often select spouses from the Persian elite or their own royal kin, thereby keeping marriages within their lineage. The writer emphasizes that these partnerships were formed to strengthen power within a particular group for political purposes. The marriage of Darius I to Atossa, a descendant of Cyrus the Great, underscored the importance of these marital unions in consolidating various branches of the royal family, thus strengthening his rise to the throne.

Other Perspectives

• Marrying within the same social echelon can lead to a lack of genetic diversity, which might result in health issues for offspring due to a smaller gene pool.
• The role of royal consorts can be overstated when considering the broader socio-political context, including the influence of military might, economic power, and diplomatic relationships.
• While women in the dynasty certainly played a role in preserving and maintaining the family lineage, it is also important to recognize the role of men in this process, as lineage was often traced through the male line in many historical societies.
• It reinforces a rigid class system that can prevent social mobility and perpetuate inequality within the society.
• Marriages within a dynasty can also be based on personal affection and compatibility, rather than solely for the purpose of strengthening power.
• Such practices may exclude capable individuals from outside the royal family who could bring fresh perspectives and alliances, potentially strengthening the dynasty in other ways.

The role of concubines in perpetuating the lineage of a dynasty.

Llewellyn-Jones investigates the hierarchy within the Persian royal court, focusing on the role of concubines, who were considered secondary wives often acquired in times of war or as elements of tribute, tasked with bearing children for the king. He emphasizes the profound political consequences of concubinage, especially when children born from these relationships, like Darius II, ascended to the throne, potentially starting a new dynasty. The author emphasizes that, despite lacking the social and legal status of royal wives, concubines could wield significant influence through their proximity to the king and their capacity to give birth to offspring.

Other Perspectives

• The concept of concubinage as a means to acquire women during times of war or as tribute can be seen as a reflection of the patriarchal and imperialistic structures of the time, and it's important to consider the ethical implications of viewing these historical practices without acknowledging their coercive nature.
• The statement doesn't consider the possibility that some concubines may have been more involved in the political or administrative affairs of the dynasty, which could also contribute to the perpetuation of the lineage in non-biological ways.
• The influence of concubines was not uniform and could vary greatly depending on the individual personalities involved, the cultural context, and the specific circumstances of the court.

The Achaemenids asserted their mastery over the natural world by erecting innovative palatial complexes at sites like Pasargadae, Persepolis, and Susa.

This section of the book explores the marvels of architectural design, highlighting the role of palaces and gardens as potent symbols of royal power, and scrutinizes the unique amalgamation of architectural styles that materialized under the patronage of the Achaemenid dynasty's rulers.

The tending of gardens and the art of horticulture symbolized equilibrium, as well as the monarch's exercise of authority and influence.

Llewellyn-Jones explores the Persian fascination with gardens, emphasizing its connection to the ancient Iranian concept of paridaida, representing a secluded sanctuary. Lloyd Llewellyn-Jones explores the intricate designs and layouts of Pasargadae and Persepolis gardens, emphasizing the role of water channels in creating a symmetrical and pleasing arrangement. The author highlights how the variety of exotic plants and animals within the gardens represented the vast expanse of the empire as well as the sovereign's dominion over nature.

Practical Tips

• Transform your workspace into an area that reflects equilibrium and control, drawing inspiration from the structure of Persian gardens. Organize your desk with symmetry in mind, using organizers and decor that mirror each other on either side. Introduce greenery with potted plants to bring a natural, calming element to the space. Position your chair in a commanding spot with a clear view of the entire area, much like a monarch would oversee their garden, to reinforce the feeling of authority over your work environment.
• Create a visual representation of a Persian garden using art supplies like watercolors or colored pencils. Even if you're not an artist, the act of drawing or painting can be a meditative process. Focus on the key elements that make these gardens a sanctuary: symmetry, water channels, and a central focal point like a tree or pavilion. Hang your artwork in a place where you'll see it daily as a reminder to seek tranquility and balance in your life.
• Create a personal emblem that incorporates elements from nature to represent your own achievements and aspirations. Design a symbol or logo for yourself that includes plants or animals you feel a connection with or that represent qualities you admire. For example, if you value wisdom and knowledge, you might include an owl in your design. Use this emblem on personal stationery or as a digital signature to remind yourself of your personal growth and goals.

The design of Achaemenid palaces intentionally displayed a range of emblems representing the empire's extensive cultural diversity.

The writer describes the development of the architectural style of Achaemenid palaces as a distinctive combination of design elements drawn from the empire's extensive domains. He explores how Greek columns and imposing entryways reflect the architectural essence of Assyrian palaces, while also noting the use of enameled bricks and designs inspired by Babylonian artistry. Llewellyn-Jones argues that the empire demonstrated its complex cultural character by merging diverse artistic expressions, highlighting the rulers' adeptness at incorporating a range of cultural traditions within their realm.

Context

• Specific examples of cultural elements include the use of Egyptian lotus motifs, Mesopotamian winged bulls, and Persian relief sculptures, each contributing to the narrative of a culturally rich and diverse empire.
• Excavations at sites like Susa and Pasargadae have revealed artifacts and architectural remnants that illustrate the blend of styles, providing tangible evidence of this cultural amalgamation.
• Assyrian architecture was known for its grandiose and monumental structures, often featuring massive gateways and fortified walls. These elements were designed to convey power and authority, reflecting the might of the Assyrian Empire.
• This technique involved coating bricks with a vitreous glaze that, when fired, created a durable and colorful surface. It was a hallmark of Mesopotamian architecture and used to convey both aesthetic beauty and symbolic meaning.
• The blending of artistic styles can also be seen as a political strategy, reinforcing the legitimacy of Achaemenid rule by visually representing the harmonious coexistence of different cultures under one empire.
• The fusion of different artistic traditions led to innovative architectural and artistic developments, setting new standards in design and aesthetics that influenced subsequent cultures.

The Persian Empire was pervasively shaped by the impact of spiritual beliefs, ritualistic customs, and celestial powers.

The section delves into the diverse spiritual practices of the Persians, highlighting how integral the gods were to their daily existence.

Inscriptions of royalty frequently emphasized the supreme importance of Ahuramazda in Persian society.

Llewellyn-Jones delves into the prominence of Ahuramazda, revered as 'the Wise Lord' and occupying the highest rank among the deities in the Persian pantheon. The portrayal of the Achaemenid rulers is that of divinely endorsed guardians tasked with upholding the cosmic equilibrium, promoting the principle of "Truth" (Arta) while following the direction of Ahuramazda. Lloyd Llewellyn-Jones underscores the regular references to Ahuramazda in royal inscriptions, particularly crediting Darius I with establishing the king's authority and guaranteeing his victories.

Context

• Ahuramazda was often depicted in art and iconography, such as the winged disk symbol, which was a common motif in Persian royal imagery, symbolizing divine protection and guidance.
• Unlike polytheistic traditions where multiple gods held significant power, Ahuramazda's supremacy in the Persian pantheon highlights the unique monotheistic or henotheistic tendencies of Zoroastrianism, setting it apart from other ancient religions.
• In Zoroastrian belief, maintaining cosmic equilibrium involved ensuring that good prevailed over evil, which was a central duty of the king as a representative of Ahuramazda on earth.
• The emphasis on Ahuramazda helped unify the diverse peoples of the empire under a common religious and cultural framework, promoting stability and cohesion.

The Magi fulfilled specific roles and participated in distinct ceremonial customs.

Llewellyn-Jones explores the functions of the Magi, a priestly caste that offered guidance on spiritual matters, specialized in ritual observances, and interpreted dreams and omens. He details the rituals of Persian priests, including the offering of sacrifices, libations, the sacred use of fire, and the consumption of the consciousness-expanding drink haoma. The information gleaned from the inscriptions on the Persepolis Fortification tablets indicates that the Magi were responsible for overseeing temple estates and distributing supplies.

Practical Tips

• Create a themed art project that explores the symbolism associated with ancient priestly castes. Use mixed media, such as painting, sculpture, or digital art, to express your interpretation of the Magi and their cultural significance. This can be a personal endeavor or shared on social media platforms to engage with others interested in historical or religious art.
• Volunteer for a local organization that aligns with your spiritual values. Engaging in community service can be a practical way to live out the spiritual guidance you seek. If compassion is a key tenet of your spirituality, look for opportunities to help at a food bank or a shelter.
• Integrate small, symbolic actions into your daily routine to cultivate a sense of purpose and mindfulness. This could involve starting your day with a moment of silence, a brief meditation, or a physical gesture like planting your feet firmly on the ground to symbolize stability and presence. Over time, these actions can become touchstones that bring a sense of sacredness to ordinary moments.
• Start a dream journal to track patterns and symbols in your own dreams. By writing down your dreams each morning, you can begin to notice recurring themes or symbols that may be significant to you. Over time, you might start to see connections between your dreams and your waking life, which could offer personal insights or guidance.
• Host a themed gathering with friends or family that celebrates a cultural tradition or historical event you're interested in. For instance, you could organize a dinner where everyone brings a dish that was significant to their ancestors or a particular period in history, sharing stories and fostering a deeper connection to the past and each other.
• Use fire as a focus for meditation or mindfulness practice. Find a safe space to light a candle or sit by a fireplace, and use the flame as a point of concentration. This can help you achieve a meditative state, drawing inspiration from the way fire was used as a focal point in historical spiritual practices.
• Start a journal to document your experiences with various herbs and spices used in ancient recipes. This can be a personal exploration of the flavors and effects these ingredients have, similar to how Persian priests might have experienced haoma. You could grow some of these herbs in your garden or source them from specialty stores to create your own blends.
• Create a virtual "estate" in a simulation game that involves resource management and development. Games like these often require players to manage assets, trade, and plan for growth, which can give you a hands-on understanding of estate management principles. Look for games that focus on historical settings or city building for a more immersive experience.
• Implement a 'one in, one out' rule for your household purchases to maintain a balanced distribution of goods. Whenever you buy a new item, choose an existing item to donate or give away. This habit helps you to constantly evaluate the necessity of your possessions and supports a cycle of giving.

Inscriptions from Persepolis disclose that a diverse pantheon was revered throughout the vast domains of Persia.

The author challenges the notion that the Persians exclusively worshipped Ahuramazda as their only god. The Fortification tablets disclose the veneration of numerous deities hailing from Iran and Elam. Offerings to deities like Mithra, who is linked to solemn promises and justice as a sun god, and Anahita, who is connected with water and revered for her impact on fertility and well-being, are documented in the historical records. The author suggests that the Persians implemented a policy of religious tolerance, supporting the worship of local deities throughout their extensive empire.

Context

• Anahita was a goddess associated with water, fertility, and healing. Her cult was widespread, and she was often depicted as a powerful and independent figure in Persian art and inscriptions.
• This was one of the capitals of the Achaemenid Empire, located in present-day Iran. It served as a ceremonial center and was known for its impressive architecture and inscriptions.
• Mithra is associated with the sun, light, and truth. He is often depicted as a warrior god who upholds cosmic order and is invoked in oaths and treaties.
• Her worship was integrated into the Zoroastrian religion, where she was associated with the waters of the world and seen as a protector of women and children.
• The Persian model of religious tolerance influenced later empires, such as the Seleucid and Parthian empires, which also adopted policies of religious inclusivity.

The decline of the Persian Empire was hastened by internal family conflicts, border conflicts, and widespread national issues.

Although Persia achieved numerous triumphs, it faced significant challenges including power struggles within its leadership, rebellions across its territories, and the rise of Macedonia as a powerful opponent. The writer scrutinizes the lasting impacts of these disputes.

Internal strife was a common occurrence among the leaders of the Achaemenid dynasty.

The narrative explores the tumultuous power struggles and frequent succession crises that plagued the Persian royal dynasty, emphasizing the often violent clashes for supremacy within the royal household.

Succession disputes were frequently ignited due to the absence of formal traditions regarding the eldest child's right to inherit.

The lack of a clear protocol for succession often led to tumultuous and unforeseeable shifts in power among members of the Achaemenid dynasty. He explains that the practice where kings chose successors from their many children, born to different consorts and lesser wives, created a breeding ground for rivalry, scheming, and occasionally, the killing of a brother by another. The author depicts several shifts in dominance, describing the intense conflict that ensued during the confrontation between Artaxerxes II and Cyrus the Younger, the assassination of Xerxes I by his progeny, and the series of secretive removals and purifications executed by Artaxerxes III to fortify his rule.

Context

• In contrast, the Roman Empire later developed the practice of adopting heirs, which provided a more stable transition of power, highlighting the challenges faced by the Persians without a similar system.
• Zoroastrianism, the dominant religion, did not prescribe specific succession rules, leaving decisions to political and familial negotiations rather than religious mandates.
• The absence of a formal succession protocol meant that power struggles were common, as various factions within the court and the empire would support different candidates, often leading to civil wars or coups.
• The Achaemenid royal family often had multiple wives and numerous children, leading to complex family dynamics and rivalries. This environment could foster jealousy and competition among siblings.
• His actions, while often brutal, were effective in temporarily stabilizing the empire and extending its influence. However, his methods also contributed to a legacy of fear and mistrust within the royal court.

The destabilizing effect that the assassination of a leader has on the governance structure.

The author highlights the frequent instances where rulers of the Achaemenid dynasty were dethroned and encountered lethal repercussions, thus accentuating the inherent dangers and volatility linked to absolute monarchical authority. He offers a thorough description of the violent overthrows that led to the demise of Xerxes I, as well as Artaxerxes III and IV, highlighting how such treacheries weakened the royal bloodline and created an atmosphere of suspicion and fear within the palace.

Other Perspectives

• The destabilizing effect of a leader's assassination can be mitigated if there is international support for the new regime or if external powers act to stabilize the governance structure post-assassination.
• It could be argued that the Achaemenid dynasty, despite instances of internal strife, was relatively stable compared to other contemporary empires, as it lasted for over two centuries, suggesting that the governance structure had resilience and mechanisms to recover from such events.
• Absolute monarchical authority can provide stability and continuity of governance, as the concentration of power in one individual can lead to decisive and consistent decision-making.
• The focus on violent overthrows might overlook the role of non-violent factors such as political maneuvering, alliances, and succession laws that could also have played a significant role in the transition of power.
• The focus on treacheries within the palace overlooks external threats and challenges that could have a more significant impact on the stability and longevity of a dynasty than internal power struggles.
• The feeling of suspicion and fear within the palace could have been a temporary reaction to the immediate aftermath of the assassinations, rather than a permanent state of affairs, with the governance structure eventually stabilizing.

Family disputes and the influence exerted by prominent women

Llewellyn-Jones explores the complex dynamics and rivalry for supremacy between family members, including siblings, spouses, and partners within the Persian imperial household. He explores the significant roles played by women like Atossa, Amestris, and Parysatis, revealing their deep influence on the futures of their children and their fervent commitment to the continuation of their family's reign, along with their involvement in court intrigues and the arrangement of political purges. He underscores the profound impact of these women who, often behind the scenes, continuously guided the fate and shaped critical occurrences of the empire.

Practical Tips

• Develop a game night activity that simulates a royal court, where each family member takes on a role within a fictional imperial household. Assign roles such as the monarch, advisors, and heirs, and create scenarios where players must negotiate for power or form alliances. This can be a fun way to explore family dynamics and decision-making without the real-world consequences.
• Engage with local schools by suggesting they incorporate stories of these influential women into their curriculum. You could provide a list of resources or even volunteer to give a presentation. This initiative helps spread awareness and ensures future generations learn about these pivotal figures.
• Start a tradition of "Future Fridays" where you dedicate time each week to discuss different careers and life paths with your child. Use online resources to explore a new profession each week, discussing what it entails and what kind of education or skills are needed. This can help your child understand the vast array of possibilities ahead and see the practical steps they can take towards their interests.
• Create a family mission statement that reflects shared values and goals. Sit down with your family members to discuss what qualities and achievements you collectively value, such as education, community service, or entrepreneurship. Write a mission statement that encapsulates these ideals and use it as a guiding principle for family decisions and actions, fostering a collective commitment to upholding and advancing your family's status.
• Create a visual timeline of women's impact on history using a free online tool or software. Choose a specific empire or era and research key female figures, their contributions, and their influence on critical occurrences. This activity will help you visualize the interconnectedness of their actions and the empire's evolution.

The matter concerning Egypt

This section of the text explores the ongoing difficulties in establishing control over Egypt, an area of significant strategic and economic value, within the sphere of Persian influence.

The frequent rebellions highlighted the inherent lack of stability in the political framework of Persia.

Llewellyn-Jones examines the enduring challenges faced by the Persians in their governance of Egypt. He notes that while Cambyses II successfully conquered Egypt in 525 BCE, establishing the Twenty-Seventh Dynasty of Persian pharaohs, the occupation was met with resistance from the outset. He cites multiple occasions where significant military intervention was essential to suppress revolts in Egypt.

Context

• The vast distances within the empire made communication slow and control difficult. Delays in response to uprisings could allow rebellions to gain momentum before they were addressed.
• Much of what is known about Cambyses II's conquest comes from Greek historians like Herodotus, whose accounts may contain biases against the Persians.
• Egyptians had a long-standing and deeply rooted cultural and religious identity. The Persians, despite their attempts to respect local customs, were often seen as foreign rulers imposing their own systems, which fueled resistance.

Inarus' rise to power in Lower Egypt markedly changed the country's position within the wider imperial landscape.

The book provides a detailed account of the rebellion led by Inarus, which occurred in 460 BCE and was backed by the Athenians. Inarus claimed lineage from the pharaohs and succeeded in driving out Achaemenes, the Persian governor, along with his forces, thereby establishing his dominion over Lower Egypt. Llewellyn-Jones analyzes the impact of the rebellion on Egypt and Persia, highlighting how fragile Persian control was.

Context

• Inarus was a Libyan prince, and his claim to pharaonic lineage was likely a political move to gain legitimacy and support among the Egyptian populace.
• Supporting the rebellion also had economic incentives for Athens, as gaining influence in Egypt could open up trade routes and access to Egyptian grain and other resources.
• The Achaemenid Empire, under which Achaemenes served, had established control over Egypt in 525 BCE, making it a satrapy, or province, of the empire.
• The Athenians, who were enemies of the Persian Empire, supported Inarus' rebellion as part of their strategy to weaken Persian influence in the region. This alliance was significant in the broader context of Greek-Persian hostilities.
• The rebellion may have fostered a sense of national identity and resistance among Egyptians, influencing future uprisings and shaping the cultural landscape of the region.
• The Persian administrative system relied on local governors (satraps) who sometimes had their own agendas, leading to inconsistent enforcement of imperial policies.

During the rule of Artaxerxes II, Egypt reasserted its sovereignty, breaking free from Persian dominance.

Despite numerous efforts to reclaim it, Egypt ultimately achieved autonomy. The Persian Empire's power was notably diminished and its global reputation suffered due to the deprivation of crucial resources as a consequence of Egypt's secession. Llewellyn-Jones notes a marked decline in Persian control over Egypt, despite their continued perception of the region as a vital part of their empire.

Context

• Artaxerxes II ruled from 404 to 358 BCE, a time marked by numerous revolts and challenges to Persian authority, including the loss of Egypt.
• The secession of Egypt encouraged other regions to challenge Persian authority, leading to increased diplomatic isolation and difficulty in forming alliances.
• The loss of Egypt was part of a broader pattern of decline in the Achaemenid Empire, which faced challenges from emerging powers like Macedonia under Alexander the Great.
• In addition to military attempts, Persia engaged in diplomatic efforts to regain control, including alliances and negotiations, but these were largely unsuccessful.
• Egypt had a rich cultural and intellectual heritage that was highly regarded and influential, making it a prestigious addition to any empire.

Modern perspectives on the lasting impact of the Achaemenid Persian Empire.

The final section of the book explores how the legacy of the Achaemenid Empire has continuously shaped the identity and historical consciousness of the Iranian people, highlighting the persistent reinterpretation and commemoration of their illustrious monarchs from the Sasanian era to the present day.

Lloyd Llewellyn-Jones's work is influenced by the documented historical accounts of Persia.

Iranian traditions persistently interact with and reinterpret the heritage of the Achaemenid period, as examined by Llewellyn-Jones.

The Sasanians claimed the legacy of the Achaemenid period to validate their rule.

The author details how the Sasanians, ascending to dominance in Iran after the Parthians, cleverly positioned themselves as successors to the Achaemenid dynasty. They invoked the heritage of distinguished forebears, namely Cyrus the Great and Darius the Great, to solidify their claim to the throne, and they infused their monumental construction endeavors with aspects of Achaemenid artistic innovation, as evidenced by the stone reliefs at Naqsh-i Rustam. Llewellyn-Jones argues that the Sasanian leaders were determined to restore the glory of Persia's history, viewing themselves as the heirs to the traditions established during the Achaemenid era.

Other Perspectives

• Some scholars might argue that the Sasanians were more interested in creating a distinct identity rather than reviving Achaemenid traditions.
• The emphasis on Cyrus the Great and Darius the Great might overshadow the contributions and legacies of other Achaemenid rulers and figures, suggesting a selective appropriation of history.
• The effectiveness of referencing forebears can be questioned if the contemporary population does not hold the past leaders in high regard or if the historical narrative is contested by other groups with different perspectives on the past.
• The stone reliefs might have been influenced by a variety of sources, and attributing their style solely to Achaemenid inspiration could overlook the complex interplay of cultural and artistic exchanges that occurred in the region during the Sasanian era.
• The concept of "restoring glory" is subjective and could be interpreted differently by various groups within the empire, suggesting that the aim might not have been universally accepted or recognized.
• Viewing themselves as heirs could have been a political strategy to legitimize their rule rather than a genuine cultural or ideological continuity.

In Ferdowsi's Shahnameh, the Persian Great Kings are portrayed as characters of legend.

The author analyzes the pivotal role played by Ferdowsi's monumental work of the tenth century, the Shahnameh, in preserving and reshaping the communal memory of the Achaemenid period. In his work, Llewellyn-Jones demonstrates how Ferdowsi elevated the figures of Cyrus, Darius, and Xerxes to iconic heroes, embodying the pinnacle of Persian rule and the virtues of valiant fighters, as depicted in the tradition of oral storytelling and epic verse. Llewellyn-Jones underscores the Shahnameh's role in crafting a potent and lasting narrative that intertwines actual historical occurrences with elements of myth, which remains influential in shaping Iranian national identity.

Practical Tips

• Create a personal "Great Book" where you document your own achievements and milestones, much like the great kings of the past. Start by listing your accomplishments, no matter how small, and reflect on the journey that led you to each one. This can serve as a motivational tool and a reminder of your capabilities, encouraging you to strive for greatness in your own life.
• Craft a short story that combines a historical event you're interested in with a fictional twist. Research an event from history that fascinates you, and then let your imagination run wild by adding mythical elements or characters to the narrative. This exercise will not only enhance your creative writing skills but also give you a deeper appreciation for the art of storytelling that merges fact with fiction, similar to the Shahnameh's approach.
• You can explore the impact of historical narratives on personal identity by creating a family tree that includes stories and legends from your ancestors. By researching and documenting your own lineage, you may discover how the tales passed down through generations have shaped your family's identity and values, similar to how the Shahnameh has influenced cultural memory.
• Volunteer for a local crisis response team or community emergency service to practice courage and quick thinking in high-pressure situations. These organizations often provide training for volunteers, allowing you to develop skills that are valuable in emergency scenarios. This hands-on experience can help you understand and embody the virtues of bravery and decisiveness in the face of adversity.
• Write a short narrative poem about a pivotal moment in your life, using the epic style of the Shahnameh as a template. Focus on a time when you faced a challenge or made a significant decision, and describe it with vivid imagery and heightened language. This exercise can help you frame your experiences in a grander context, giving you a new perspective on your personal journey and how it shapes who you are.
• Engage with local storytelling groups or online forums where people share stories from their cultural or personal backgrounds. Actively listen and, when comfortable, contribute your own stories. This practice helps you understand the diversity of narratives that exist and the common threads that link different cultures' storytelling traditions, fostering a deeper appreciation for the role of narrative in human connection.

The way Iran engaged with its Achaemenid heritage throughout the twentieth century.

In this segment of the analysis, we explore how rulers of Iran in the twentieth century harnessed their legacy from the Achaemenid period to further various political goals.

The Pahlavi dynasty reinforced the Shah's autocratic rule and cultivated a contemporary national identity by leveraging the legacy of historical figures such as Cyrus the Great.

Llewellyn-Jones's analysis uncovers the vigorous efforts of Mohammad Reza Shah Pahlavi, Iran's final sovereign, to champion the heritage of Cyrus the Great throughout his time in power. He highlights the lavish celebrations in 1971 that commemorated the quarter-millennium anniversary of the Persian Empire's establishment, focusing especially on the symbolic significance of the ceremonies held at Pasargadae and Persepolis. The Shah strove to present himself as a benevolent and tolerant ruler, making efforts to associate the Pahlavi dynasty with the glorious past of Persia. However, the author argues that this approach did not succeed, as the Shah's attempts to legitimize his authoritarian rule by likening himself to the ancient Persian monarch Cyrus backfired, provoking discontent among those who saw the celebrations as extravagant and out of touch with the conditions of modern Iran.

Context

• The regime was known for its use of the SAVAK, a secret police organization, to suppress political dissent and control opposition, reinforcing the Shah's autocratic rule.
• The promotion of a contemporary national identity was part of a broader strategy to unify the diverse ethnic and linguistic groups within Iran under a single national narrative.
• The 2,500-year celebration of the Persian Empire was a grand event intended to showcase Iran's historical significance and the Shah's role as a modern successor to Cyrus, involving international dignitaries and extensive media coverage.
• The opulence of the 1971 celebrations was seen by many as excessive, especially given the economic disparities and political repression within the country at the time.
• During the 1970s, Iran was experiencing social and economic changes, with growing discontent among various groups, including religious leaders and intellectuals, who criticized the Shah's regime for its authoritarianism and Westernization policies.
• The Pahlavi dynasty, established in 1925, sought to modernize and secularize Iran, drawing on the ancient Persian Empire's legacy to foster a sense of national pride and continuity.
• This self-presentation was intended to consolidate power and counteract criticism from both religious conservatives and political opponents who viewed his regime as oppressive.
• The Shah's emphasis on pre-Islamic history alienated segments of the population who felt a stronger connection to Islamic heritage, contributing to a sense of cultural and historical dissonance.
• Globally, the celebrations were seen as a display of opulence, which contrasted with Iran's image as a developing nation, leading to criticism from both domestic and international observers.

The Islamic Revolution sought to diminish the importance of Persia's historical narrative and discredit its pre-Islamic polytheistic heritage.

Llewellyn-Jones clarifies that the 1979 Islamic Revolution was a reaction to the Shah's emphasis on a pre-Islamic historical period in the region now known as Iran. The government that had just come to power under Ayatollah Khomeini regarded the respect for Cyrus and his Achaemenid lineage as incompatible with Islamic principles, seeing it as akin to idolatry. The country has made efforts to downplay its history prior to the advent of Islam, opting to highlight its Islamic-based identity.

Other Perspectives

• The revolution's approach to Persia's history might be interpreted not as discrediting it but as recontextualizing it within an Islamic framework.
• The Revolution was also significantly influenced by the desire for greater political freedom and economic reforms, which suggests that the emphasis on pre-Islamic history was not the central issue.
• The interpretation of what constitutes idolatry can vary among Islamic scholars, and some may argue that a cultural and historical appreciation of past civilizations does not fall under this category.
• There are scholars and historians within Iran who continue to study and promote the country's pre-Islamic past, indicating that this aspect of Iranian heritage has not been completely disregarded.

Interest in the historical account of Iran before the advent of Islam has seen a significant revival.

Despite attempts by the Islamic Republic to diminish the significance of Iran's distant past, there has been a noticeable resurgence of interest in the period of the Achaemenid Empire, particularly among younger generations.

Evidence of the increasing prominence of Cyrus the Great as an emblem of national identity

Llewellyn-Jones emphasizes the growing allure of Cyrus the Great among young Iranians, noting the annual celebrations in his honor, the widespread use of his image on clothing, and his persistent popularity on the internet, despite government efforts to control his image. Cyrus symbolizes Iranian nationalism and unity, serving as a bridge across diverse political and religious rifts.

Practical Tips

• Engage with online communities that discuss historical figures and their modern relevance. Find forums, social media groups, or blogs where people discuss the impact of historical figures like Cyrus the Great on contemporary culture. Participate in these discussions to see how different perspectives can broaden your understanding of why certain historical figures remain influential today.
• Use custom patches or pins to personalize your existing wardrobe with symbols that resonate with your personal story or achievements. For instance, if you've completed a marathon, you could create a custom patch commemorating the event and attach it to your jacket or backpack.
• Develop a personal leadership plan by identifying areas in your life where you can practice Cyrus-like leadership qualities. Set specific goals, such as mediating a conflict with fairness or volunteering for a leadership role in a community group, and reflect on your experiences in a journal. This hands-on strategy will help you apply leadership principles in real-life situations and grow your own leadership skills.
• Start a journal to document your own observations of government image control in real-time. Whenever you come across a news story, advertisement, or public statement that seems to be managing the image of a government entity, jot it down. Over time, you'll have a personal case study of image control methods.
• Engage with your local community by volunteering for a project that aims to strengthen community bonds. Look for initiatives that are dedicated to bringing diverse groups together, such as community gardens, mural painting, or cultural festivals. By participating, you contribute to a sense of unity and nationalism on a micro-level, mirroring the larger-scale impact of figures like Cyrus.
• Create a 'Perspective Exchange' challenge on social media where you and others commit to sharing and reflecting on stories or articles from a variety of political or religious sources for a set period. This challenge can promote empathy and understanding as participants actively engage with perspectives different from their own.

Mahmoud Ahmadinejad's utilization of Cyrus's depiction

The author explores how Mahmoud Ahmadinejad, the former president of Iran, leveraged the increased interest in Cyrus by showcasing the Cyrus Cylinder at an exhibit in Tehran, with the intention of aligning his leadership with the esteemed ruler and fostering a feeling of unity among the nation.

Other Perspectives

• Mahmoud Ahmadinejad's actions could be seen as an attempt to co-opt historical prestige rather than a genuine alignment with Cyrus's values and leadership style.
• Some may argue that the true intentions behind such actions are to distract from current political issues rather than to foster genuine unity.
• The effectiveness of such a display in fostering unity is questionable without accompanying policies and actions that actively promote inclusivity and address the concerns of all citizens.

The establishment of a day to honor Cyrus the Great significantly shaped the future of Iran.

In his final comments, Llewellyn-Jones points out that many Iranians mark October 29th as a day to honor "Cyrus the Great," which sharply contrasts with the Iranian government's attempts to control historical narratives, hinting at possible paths for the nation's destiny.

Other Perspectives

• While many Iranians may celebrate October 29th to honor Cyrus the Great, it is not an official public holiday recognized by the Iranian government, which suggests that the celebration is not universally observed across the country.
• Honoring a historical figure does not necessarily indicate a clear path for a nation's future, as it may not translate into actionable political or social change.