PDF Summary:Longstreet, by Elizabeth R. Varon

Elizabeth R. Varon's Longstreet offers an in-depth examination of Confederate General James Longstreet and his pivotal role in major Civil War battles. The book pays particular attention to Longstreet's controversial leadership during the Battle of Gettysburg and his complex relationship with General Robert E. Lee.

Varon also details Longstreet's transition from soldier to political figure in the Reconstruction era. She explores his support for racial equality policies, his navigation of the Republican Party's factional divides, and the backlash he faced from those devoted to the Lost Cause narrative.

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The shortcomings of Longstreet's Knoxville campaign were the inevitable result of a trio of interconnected elements, as Varon has detailed. First, Bragg’s poor judgment. The failure of Bragg to maintain offensive pressure on Rosecrans following the victory at Chickamauga allowed the Union forces to strengthen their defenses in Chattanooga, effectively leading the Southern forces into a scenario akin to a siege. Conflicts within the Confederate hierarchy occurred frequently. Although Lee recognized Longstreet's capabilities, as evidenced by his promotion and independent control of the First Corps, as well as an October letter praising his leadership in combat, Lee concurred with Bragg's decision to entrust Longstreet with a significant mission that led him away from Chattanooga for a key operation in Knoxville. The Southern states encountered significant logistical obstacles. During his time at Suffolk, Longstreet regularly experienced a lack of supplies, provisions, and additional troops. In early November 1863, Longstreet's troops were dispatched to reassert dominance over Knoxville but found themselves too few in number to be impactful, and the Union forces led by Ambrose Burnside tactically withdrew, managing to maneuver around Longstreet, thereby creating a substantial gap between him and Bragg. Bragg would be forced to send Lee a plea for assistance, as Grant and Rosecrans prepared to spring Bragg’s trap. Longstreet's spirits were lowered upon facing Burnside's formidable entrenched defenses, which occurred simultaneously with Bragg's setback at Chattanooga. The forceful and conclusive assault led by Longstreet on Fort Sanders on November 29, 1863, marked a notable departure from his typical avoidance of such strategies, which he deemed reckless, highlighting the lack of caution that typified the strategy of the Confederate leadership.

Context

• The Battle of Chickamauga, fought in September 1863, was one of the major battles in the Western Theater of the American Civil War and marked the last significant Confederate victory in the war. It was crucial because it temporarily halted Union advances in the region.
• Jefferson Davis, the President of the Confederate States, was known for his hands-on approach to military strategy, often involving himself in the selection and promotion of generals. His decisions were sometimes controversial and led to tensions within the Confederate command structure.
• Bragg was known for his contentious relationships with subordinates and his often indecisive command style. His failure to maintain pressure on Rosecrans can be partly attributed to these leadership challenges, which frequently led to missed opportunities.
• Knoxville was a key location due to its railroads and resources, making it strategically valuable for both Confederate and Union forces. Lee's agreement to send Longstreet there indicates the high stakes involved in controlling the area.
• The Southern rail network was less extensive and less efficient than the North's, complicating the movement of troops and supplies. Railroads were often targeted by Union forces, further disrupting Confederate supply lines.
• By late 1863, the Confederacy was experiencing significant resource shortages, including manpower, which affected their ability to reinforce troops adequately across multiple fronts.
• The gap between Longstreet and Bragg was exacerbated by poor communication and coordination within the Confederate command. This separation made it difficult for the two forces to support each other effectively.
• The Union victories at battles like Vicksburg and Gettysburg earlier in 1863 had shifted the momentum of the war in favor of the North, putting additional pressure on Confederate forces to hold their ground in key locations like Chattanooga.
• Ambrose Burnside was a Union general known for his distinctive facial hair, which led to the term "sideburns." He had previously suffered a significant defeat at the Battle of Fredericksburg but was tasked with defending Knoxville, where he successfully fortified the city against Confederate attacks.
• The assault on Fort Sanders involved a direct frontal attack on well-fortified Union positions, which was contrary to Longstreet's usual strategy of avoiding high-risk offensives that could lead to heavy losses.

Appomattox's capitulation was a pivotal moment that ignited significant personal and political transformations in Longstreet.

Varon suggests that the pivotal event which molded Longstreet's life occurred when he surrendered at Appomattox. In the final stages of the war, she contends, Longstreet took advantage of the situation to underscore the shortcomings and mistakes in the Confederate leadership, while also reaffirming the importance of his pre-war relationship with Ulysses Grant. At Appomattox, Longstreet saw Grant’s dispensing of clemency as a call to repentance and a pledge of peaceful union.

The viewpoint of Longstreet regarding the reunification of the country was shaped by the circumstances surrounding the act of capitulation.

In this segment, Varon illustrates how Longstreet's viewpoint was shaped in two major ways by the events surrounding the surrender at Appomattox, which subsequently steered him towards involvement in Republican politics. First, Longstreet derived from the surrender terms the view that war was no longer a viable option for Southern nationalists; those fighting men who had not laid down their arms at Appomattox should and must, regardless of their grievances. Longstreet interpreted Grant's magnanimity as an act that was representative of both personal and official capacities. In her account, Varon illustrates how Lee's rejection of Grant's peace proposal in early April 1865 highlighted the essential deficiencies within the Confederate leadership as perceived by Longstreet. Furthermore, she narrates how Grant's generous offer on April 9—extending clemency in exchange for the Confederates' surrender of arms—resonated with Longstreet's belief in Grant's moral courage to offer forgiveness, a quality he considered crucial for the country's healing.

Other Perspectives

• The interpretation of surrender terms as a signal to end all forms of resistance could overlook the complexity of Southern identity and the possibility that some individuals or groups might continue to seek alternative methods to maintain their nationalist goals.
• The interpretation of Grant's actions as representative of both personal and official capacities could be challenged by the argument that all acts by a military leader in his position are inherently political and thus primarily official.
• Lee's rejection of Grant's peace proposal could be seen as a demonstration of his commitment to the Confederate cause and the principles he fought for, rather than a deficiency in leadership.
• The notion of moral courage in the context of Grant's offer could be contested by arguing that true moral courage would have required more stringent terms to ensure a just peace, rather than a lenient approach that prioritized reconciliation over accountability.
• It is possible that Longstreet's pre-war and wartime experiences and beliefs also played a significant role in shaping his post-war political affiliations, not just the circumstances of the surrender.

Longstreet harbored hopes for a nation that would come together in harmony, and he shared a strong connection with Grant.

Varon skillfully weaves together Longstreet's steadfast loyalty to the Republican Party and the resulting evolution of his political stance with his strong relationship with Grant.

Varon sheds light on the unique nature of Longstreet's relationship, highlighting his ability to maintain a strong friendship with the President of the United States, especially considering his ties to the Republican Party following the war. The connection he had with Grant significantly influenced Longstreet's perspective on the terms of capitulation at Appomattox. Longstreet observed that Grant opted to cease hostilities when the end of the conflict was clear, rather than forcing the Confederate forces to continue fighting until the bitter end, a strategy that Jefferson Davis had firmly supported. Grant's decision to forego punitive actions against Lee's troops and to not demand a traditional surrender involving their battle flags preserved a sense of honor for the Southern states, enabling the Confederate soldiers to return home with their pride unscathed and reconcile with their defeat. Longstreet depicted his participation in the Appomattox surrender as that of a mediator who endorsed a reconciliatory stance, recognizing and concurring that the Northern forces would perceive their surrender in a specific way, a sentiment he would eventually recount in his memoirs of the Civil War. Longstreet firmly believed that both the South and the North should actively engage in fostering national unity. Varon argues convincingly that Longstreet's interpretation of the surrender was very much in keeping with Grant’s, as Grant's generous terms reflected his political strategy-namely, the view that offering clemency would change hearts and minds, and bring about Confederate repentance and submission to the authority of a reunited nation.

Other Perspectives

• Longstreet's hope for national harmony may have been idealistic, considering the deep divisions and lasting resentments following the Civil War.
• Longstreet's strong connection with Grant could be interpreted differently by various historical sources, and some may argue that it has been romanticized or simplified over time.
• The concept of loyalty itself can be subjective; what one person views as steadfast loyalty, another might see as a more conditional or strategic alliance.
• The choice to end hostilities when the conflict's end was clear might be seen as a standard military decision rather than a unique or noteworthy strategy, as continuing to fight a clearly lost battle would generally be considered futile and irresponsible.
• Critics might contend that while Grant did not force the Confederates to fight to the bitter end, the terms of surrender still required the dismantling of the Confederate army and the acknowledgment of Union supremacy, which was a form of defeat for the Confederacy.
• Grant's leniency at the surrender could be seen not so much as preserving Southern honor but rather as a pragmatic approach to prevent further guerrilla warfare and bloodshed, which might have continued had the South felt utterly humiliated.
• The notion of returning home with "pride unscathed" might not fully account for the diverse experiences of all Confederate soldiers, some of whom may have felt shame or regret about the war and its outcomes.
• The term "mediator" implies a neutral party facilitating agreement between two opposing sides, but Longstreet, as a Confederate general, was inherently not neutral.
• The notion of unity he advocated for could be criticized for not fully addressing or acknowledging the complexities of Reconstruction and the systemic issues that led to the Civil War, such as racial inequality and economic disparities.
• The desire to change hearts and minds could be seen as secondary to the political and strategic necessity of restoring the Union as swiftly and smoothly as possible.
• Submission to a reunited nation could be seen as an inevitable consequence of military defeat rather than a voluntary acceptance of Grant's political strategy.

Longstreet's transition in political loyalty, coupled with his engagement during the Reconstruction era, involved his support for the Union and cooperation with prominent figures,

Varon argues that Longstreet's political evolution after 1865 was conditioned by his desire to reestablish, as best he could, his rights as a citizen of the United States, to rebuild his family's fortunes, and to protect his old comrades in arms. Longstreet's gradual shift from supporting the Johnson administration to eventually embracing the nascent Republican Party and supporting the Reconstruction initiatives in Louisiana unfolded over time. This change was shaped by his relationship with U.S. Grant and a growing recognition of the reluctance to change among white Southerners, along with an increasing willingness to confront this resistance.

Longstreet's quest for exoneration resulted in political consequences from his former Confederate associates because of his allegiance to the Union.

Longstreet exhibited a willingness to embrace pardon and his forward-thinking remarks on Southern matters, illustrating his efforts to reconcile the differences between the traditional Southern Democrats and the emerging Republican Party in that area.

Longstreet commenced a fresh phase in his life as a proponent for the Southern Union by accepting amnesty and committing his loyalty.

Varon argues that the decision by Longstreet to settle in New Orleans and pursue redemption to regain his citizenship, rather than starting afresh in Texas with his family, signified a crucial turning point in his path toward adopting Republican ideals.

Following the summer of 1865, Longstreet relocated to New Orleans and embarked on a venture in the cotton sector, after spending time with relatives in Virginia, Georgia, and Mississippi. Longstreet found Louisiana's varied cultural scene and unique political environment appealing, especially since it was considered by the Lincoln administration as a perfect place to test an innovative amnesty policy during the unrest. Before hostilities commenced, New Orleans was home to a notable group of white allies instrumental in supporting the Republican Party's efforts to set up a government that remained faithful to the Union. Longstreet, recognizing that his parole status limited his activities in the cotton brokerage, swiftly took the oath in accordance with Lincoln's directives under the supervision of a military law enforcement official. Upon swearing the oath, he qualified for mercy in line with the stipulations set by President Johnson, ensuring the restoration of his political privileges and the return of his possessions. Longstreet recognized the necessity of obtaining a pardon from President Johnson due to his former position in the Confederate military hierarchy. His choice to make New Orleans his home would have significant consequences, just as his efforts during that summer to cultivate a relationship with U.S. Grant did. Grant was gaining a reputation for his staunch defense of ex-Confederate soldiers against the severe punishments demanded by the relentless Northern public and press, which initiated Longstreet's attempts to establish a political partnership with Grant.

Practical Tips

• Volunteer for a community organization that bridges divides, such as a group that brings together people from different political or social backgrounds. Engaging in community service with the intention of fostering unity allows you to embody the spirit of loyalty to a collective cause. This hands-on approach gives you a practical way to experience and contribute to the process of reconciliation and unity within your community.
• Engage in a symbolic act of renewal to mark your commitment to a new beginning. This could be planting a tree, starting a new hobby, or even relocating to a new city if your situation allows. The key is to choose an act that signifies a break from the past and a step towards a future where you are an active, positive participant in your own life and the lives of those around you.
• Start a conversation with someone who has made a significant ideological change to gain insight into their thought process. Engaging with someone who has experienced a drastic shift in beliefs can provide a real-world understanding of how such transformations occur. You might reach out to a community leader or a mentor who has publicly changed their stance on an important issue.
• Explore your family's geographic history by creating a visual map that includes all the places your relatives have lived, which can help you understand your own preferences for locations and cultures. Start by gathering information from family members, historical documents, or public records. Then, use an online mapping tool to pin the locations and add notes about what each place means to your family's story. This can be a fun weekend project that also serves as a conversation starter at family gatherings.
• Explore your local cultural scene by attending a variety of events to appreciate the diversity in your area. Start by checking out community calendars, visiting local museums, and attending cultural festivals to immerse yourself in the arts, music, and traditions that define your region. This can help you develop a deeper connection to your community, similar to the appreciation Longstreet found in Louisiana.
• Initiate conversations with friends or family about the concept of amnesty in different contexts, such as in personal relationships, within the workplace, or in the justice system. Use these discussions to gather diverse perspectives and to challenge your own assumptions. This can help you develop a more nuanced view of how amnesty might work in various scenarios and its potential ripple effects on society.
• Consider adopting a personal code of conduct that aligns with your values and the type of mercy you might seek from others. Draft a set of principles that guide your actions, especially in difficult situations, ensuring that you act with integrity and are prepared to take responsibility for your actions, much like taking an oath.
• Create a role-play exercise with friends or family where one person acts as an authority figure and the others must present their case for clemency or understanding. This can help develop persuasive communication skills and empathy, as you must articulate your reasons and understand the perspective of the person granting forgiveness.
• Enhance your networking skills by creating a 'relationship map' of your current professional network. On a large piece of paper or digital app, draw yourself at the center and map out connections to people you know, categorizing them by industry, expertise, or how you met. Then, identify key individuals you want to build stronger relationships with and plan specific actions, like setting up a coffee meeting or collaborating on a project, to deepen those connections over time.
• You can foster empathy by writing a letter from the perspective of someone you disagree with. Imagine their circumstances, feelings, and motivations to gain a deeper understanding of their position. This exercise can help you develop a more balanced view and reduce the urge to judge others harshly.
• You can foster strategic alliances by identifying common goals with potential partners. Start by listing your personal or professional objectives and then research individuals or organizations that share similar aims. Reach out to them with a proposal that outlines the mutual benefits of working together, ensuring that you communicate clearly how the partnership can be advantageous for both parties.

During the period of Reconstruction, Longstreet consistently supported Congressional policies in his correspondence and consciously separated himself from the principles associated with the Lost Cause.

Varon argues that Longstreet's initial backing of congressional Reconstruction in early 1867 marked a substantial departure from the beliefs of ex-Confederates firmly committed to the Lost Cause narrative, a move that paved the way for his later collaboration with the Republican Party.

a Democratic newspaper in New Orleans for assessments of the 1867 Reconstruction Acts, Longstreet shared his controversial opinion; the legislation offered Southern states a chance to establish new governments that would allow Black citizens to vote, provided they supported the Fourteenth Amendment and repudiated secession. Longstreet's initial communications with the media, published in March and April, expressed a definitive position: those vanquished in the conflict between the states should abide by the terms of their surrender, including the end of enslavement. Varon argues that individuals supportive of reconstruction from across the regional divide reacted prudently to these declarations, including several former Confederate commanders whose past senior roles in the military lent weight to their statements, even though Longstreet had not committed himself to the Republican Party. Longstreet intensified tensions when he released a pair of letters in June that were deemed provocative by conservative Southern whites because of his backing for certain legislative measures. The correspondence served not only as a rejection of the leniency shown by Johnson and the Southern Democrats but also praised the Reconstruction Acts of 1867 as gestures of reconciliation toward the ex-Confederates, urging white Southerners to reject the outdated tenets of the Lost Cause. Longstreet, in his correspondence, did not support racial equality, nor did he condemn slavery or secession, but he recognized that the victorious Northern states possessed the right to impose conditions on the Southern states during Reconstruction. Viewed from the standpoint of those steadfast in their original convictions, the Confederacy saw Longstreet's most serious offense as follows.

Practical Tips

• Enhance your civic engagement by volunteering with a local organization that focuses on policy advocacy or education. Look for groups that work on issues related to those addressed during Reconstruction, such as voting rights or social justice. Your involvement will give you a practical perspective on how policies impact communities, similar to those during the Reconstruction period.
• Encourage open discussions about historical and current social issues with friends and family to deepen understanding and respect for the outcomes of past conflicts. For example, when topics like civil rights or social justice arise, engage in conversations that acknowledge the progress made and the importance of upholding the changes that have been legally and socially agreed upon.
• Engage in reflective journaling after consuming media related to the Civil War and Reconstruction to critically assess how these topics are portrayed. Write down your thoughts on the accuracy and biases present in movies, TV shows, or articles, and consider how these representations align with or differ from the historical reality. This practice encourages critical thinking and helps you recognize modern interpretations of historical events.
• Create a personal "bill of conditions" for any group project or collaborative effort you're involved in, drawing inspiration from historical events like Reconstruction. This could involve setting clear expectations and consequences for the group's performance, mirroring the accountability measures that were part of the Reconstruction era. Discuss these conditions with your group to ensure everyone is on the same page and to practice negotiating and enforcing agreements.

Other Perspectives

• The idea of a monolithic set of beliefs among ex-Confederates is an oversimplification, as there would have been a range of opinions on Reconstruction within that group.
• The reactions of former Confederate commanders could have been varied, with some acting prudently and others not, rather than a uniform response.
• It's possible that Longstreet's letters were meant to encourage compliance with federal law and policy, which was a practical necessity for reintegration, rather than to provoke.
• The view of the Reconstruction Acts as reconciliatory does not take into account the perspectives of those who felt disenfranchised by the Acts, particularly Southern whites who may have seen them as punitive rather than healing.

Debates in the press about Longstreet's stance tended to mirror differing loyalties to political parties rather than splits based on location.

Varon argues that the portrayal of Longstreet's correspondence in various media mirrors the profound splits in Southern communities and the fierce bitterness characterizing discussions during the Reconstruction era. The conflicts involving Longstreet underscored a divide that was political rather than geographical, with Longstreet receiving support from Republicans irrespective of their proximity to the Mason-Dixon line, while he faced strong opposition from Southern Democrats, as well as their Northern Copperhead and conservative Democratic allies.

Republican newspapers, from New Hampshire to Wisconsin to San Francisco, lauded Longstreet for his “brave” stance of supporting congressional Reconstruction. A number of Southern Unionists, along with some hesitant Confederates, contributed their support to amplify the collective voice originating from the Northern Republicans. Varon notes that the second group saw Longstreet's decision to abandon the principles of the Confederacy as a pivotal moment leading to political enlightenment, a sign they hoped would lead others to the same understanding, thus paving a path to wealth and harmony, and recognizing the right of Southern Unionists to engage in politics. While some Northern Democrats, represented by conservative journals like the Old Guard, labeled Longstreet as a traitor, he encountered harsher condemnation from periodicals throughout Louisiana, Mississippi, the Palmetto State, Georgia, as well as from publications in Texas and additional Southern regions that were pending reconstruction efforts. Southern newspapers, which initially had a somewhat optimistic view of Longstreet's early letters supporting amnesty and unity, sharply criticized him following his correspondence during the mid-year of 1867, denouncing his calls for regional harmony as mere self-serving political maneuvering, likening it to an eagerness to abase oneself to acquire political clout, a sentiment succinctly captured by a Northerner's expression about "eating dirt." In the state of Virginia, which would later witness a significant shift in Longstreet's political path, his conduct was vehemently denounced for contesting the traditional association of Southern honor with masculine identity.

Context

• Copperheads were a faction of Northern Democrats who opposed the Civil War and advocated for an immediate peace settlement with the Confederates. During Reconstruction, they often sympathized with Southern Democrats and opposed Republican policies aimed at rebuilding the South and ensuring rights for freed slaves.
• The period following the Civil War, known as Reconstruction, was marked by intense political and social upheaval as the United States grappled with reintegrating the Southern states and addressing the rights of newly freed African Americans. This context is crucial to understanding the charged atmosphere in which Longstreet's actions were scrutinized.

Other Perspectives

• Some historians might suggest that Varon's argument does not sufficiently consider the role of personal relationships and local allegiances, which could also shape one's stance on Longstreet independent of party politics.
• The support from Republicans could have been more strategic than ideological, with Republicans possibly seeing an opportunity to leverage Longstreet's position to gain political advantage rather than fully endorsing his views.
• The notion of support from Southern Unionists and hesitant Confederates could be challenged by the fact that many in the South remained deeply resistant to Reconstruction efforts and the political realignment that Longstreet represented, suggesting that any support he did receive was not indicative of a broader regional acceptance.
• The idea of enlightenment suggests a linear progression towards a more advanced state, which oversimplifies the complex political and social dynamics of the Reconstruction era.
• The use of the term "traitor" by Northern Democrats could be interpreted as a rhetorical strategy to discredit a political opponent rather than a fair assessment of Longstreet's actions.
• Accusations of seeking political clout could be seen as a common critique leveled against any individual who changes political sides, which does not necessarily invalidate the reasons behind their shift.
• The notion of honor being tied to an unchanging masculine identity could be critiqued as an outdated concept that does not account for the diverse experiences and perspectives of all Southerners.

Longstreet adeptly maneuvered through the changing terrain of partnerships and advancement prospects within the Louisiana Republican Party.

Varon argues that Longstreet’s first forays into Republican politics were tempered by his belief that conservative white Southerners, including some former Confederates, belonged in the party fold but also conditioned by his growing understanding that the Republican Party’s viability—and his own— depended on Black votes.

Longstreet was appointed as the customs surveyor and was a proactive advocate for the promotion of African American employees in the civil service.

Varon contends that the choice by Longstreet to employ African-American staff in his federal office during the summer of 1869, along with his backing of Black militia commanders, stemmed largely from pragmatic motives rather than a steadfast commitment to racial equality. However, this decision only served to deepen the rift with white conservatives, who viewed Longstreet as an emblem of the societal equalization they detested, providing a fresh battleground for their opposition to social unity.

The election of that year culminated in a substantial triumph for the Republican Party, with U.S. Grant outpacing Democrat Horatio Seymour, although the outcomes were vehemently contested throughout the predominantly Democratic South, where Seymour won the majority of white votes in Louisiana, despite the recent enfranchisement of Black voters there. As Grant assumed the presidency, he made it clear that he would support congressional Reconstruction: he would prioritize Black suffrage and federal civil rights laws and the establishment of Republican governments in the Southern states over the desires of white Southerners who rejected such policies. Longstreet, who had campaigned publicly for Grant, sought to use his relationship with the president as leverage for his own advancement in the party. In the spring of 1869, the president appointed him as the surveyor of customs for the port of New Orleans, a position that provided Longstreet and his family with a sense of relief and much-needed financial stability. His supporters saw this role, as reflected through media discussions and portrayals, as evidence that Grant was fulfilling the assurances of leniency he had made earlier at Appomattox. Members of the Democratic Party and the white Southern media held the belief that Longstreet had abandoned his Confederate heritage by embracing his new position, which implied that his allegiance had been traded for financial gain. Longstreet initiated conversations by promptly transforming his office into a hub that welcomed African Americans into roles varying from administrative duties to delivering messages. The author highlights that although these nominations might appear to challenge the confining tenets of the Lost Cause ideology, they actually represented Longstreet's effort to establish trustworthy alliances within the emerging Republican Party of Louisiana, which encompassed prominent members of the African American community.

Practical Tips

• Conduct informational interviews with professionals in the customs or logistics field to learn about their career paths. Reach out to customs officers, surveyors, or logistics managers and ask to discuss their roles over coffee. This can provide a real-world understanding of the skills and experiences necessary for such appointments.
• Start a peer recognition program at your workplace that highlights the achievements of African American colleagues. This can foster an inclusive environment where contributions from all employees are celebrated. For instance, create a monthly spotlight that features an employee's success story or significant contribution to the company, ensuring that African American employees' efforts are acknowledged and visible.
• Consider mentoring or sponsoring individuals from underrepresented groups in your professional field. By offering guidance, sharing resources, and providing opportunities, you help to break down barriers and create a more inclusive environment that echoes the progressive steps taken by historical figures like Longstreet.
• Encourage inclusive representation by starting a book club focused on authors and characters from diverse backgrounds. By selecting literature that highlights different cultures and perspectives, you're creating a platform for discussion and understanding, which can translate to greater support for diversity in all areas of life, including leadership.
• Start a book club focused on historical figures and their motivations to foster discussions on pragmatism versus principle. Choose biographies and histories that explore the complexities of leaders' decisions. Through these discussions, you can better understand the factors that influence decision-making and how historical contexts can shape actions.
• You can analyze the impact of historical figures' decisions on current societal divisions by creating a personal journal. Start by selecting a historical figure and researching their key decisions and the societal context of their time. Write daily entries reflecting on how these decisions might have sown seeds for current societal rifts or unity. This exercise can deepen your understanding of the long-term effects of political actions.
• Volunteer for a political campaign to experience firsthand the strategies and efforts that go into seeking a political victory. This practical involvement will give you insight into the modern political process and the importance of each role within a campaign, drawing parallels to historical election victories and their influence on political landscapes.
• Create a personal development plan inspired by historical figures' success traits. Identify qualities and strategies that helped leaders like U.S. Grant succeed, and incorporate these into your own goals. For instance, if determination and resilience were key to Grant's success, set challenges for yourself that require these traits and track your progress.
• Educate yourself on current civil rights issues by subscribing to newsletters from civil rights advocacy groups. Staying informed about challenges and progress in civil rights today allows you to be a more effective ally and participant in the ongoing struggle for equality, drawing inspiration from historical figures who championed these causes.
• Create a discussion group with friends or community members to talk about the evolution of government and its impact on society. Use the historical context of the Republican governments as a starting point to explore how government decisions shape social and economic conditions. This could lead to discussions on current government initiatives and their potential long-term effects, drawing a line from past to present governance.
• Start a blog or social media page dedicated to celebrating the achievements of others in your field. Use this platform to share stories of success, innovation, and leadership that often go unnoticed. This not only helps to promote a culture of recognition but also positions you as someone who values and encourages community success.
• Improve your understanding of organizational dynamics by volunteering for a committee or board in your community. Taking on a role that requires you to survey and report on the group's activities will give you practical experience in oversight and governance, akin to the responsibilities of a surveyor of customs.
• Volunteer for projects or committees where you can work closely with influential figures in your organization or industry. Look for opportunities that align with your skills but also involve collaboration with senior leaders or high-performers. This exposure can lead to mentorship opportunities and increase your visibility for potential advancement.
• Consider taking on a side job or freelance work to supplement your main income. Look for opportunities that match your skills and interests, and use online platforms to find gigs. This additional income can help cover unexpected expenses and contribute to savings, mirroring the financial security achieved by Longstreet.
• Reflect on a promise you've made recently and take a concrete step towards fulfilling it. If you've promised a friend to catch up, schedule a date and time. This action reinforces trust and accountability, similar to how historical figures have been perceived when they've kept their promises.
• Consider revising your company's imagery in marketing materials to reflect a diverse range of people. This could involve using stock photos that include individuals of various ethnicities, ages, and abilities, ensuring that your brand's visual representation is inclusive and welcoming to a broader audience.
• Create a social media campaign that highlights lesser-known historical figures or events that contradict popular beliefs. Use hashtags, infographics, and short videos to share your findings. This can help raise awareness and educate others about the multifaceted nature of history.
• Start a discussion group focused on community or political issues to connect with like-minded individuals. This can be as simple as creating a social media group or hosting regular meetups. Through these discussions, you can identify potential allies who share your viewpoints and objectives, laying the groundwork for future collaborations on projects or initiatives that benefit your community.

Longstreet played a pivotal role in establishing a racially diverse state militia in Louisiana.

Elizabeth R. Varon examines the way Longstreet directed the Louisiana State Militia, highlighting his willingness to challenge the entrenched racial conventions of the South. She also notes that the intense opposition from white Southerners to the idea of African Americans possessing political authority or the capability to carry weapons significantly hindered the Republican attempts to safeguard the suffrage of African Americans and to establish an enduring multi-racial governance structure in the state.

In Varon's analysis, one of the most significant and impactful actions taken by Governor Warmoth's administration was the creation of a state militia that included members of different races early in the year 1870; this initiative was considered essential as it suggested that leaders of the Republican Party in Louisiana had the ability to equip their African American allies with the means for self-defense, which could help suppress the violent deeds of white extremists. Longstreet's decision to become adjutant general and chief of staff to Warmoth was risky, considering his unstable status within Louisiana's Black Republican circles and the anticipated contempt from ex-Confederates for supervising African American officers. Varon noted that Warmoth was willing to take a risk on Longstreet's ability to ready and lead soldiers efficiently, which was a considerable benefit, and his well-regarded status as a courageous and honorable warrior could potentially heighten the attractiveness and legitimacy of the emerging military unit. However, the outcome was somewhat different. Longstreet's efforts faced resistance from white Louisianans, and to a certain extent, from a portion of his African American political backers, all of whom had their own concerns regarding the outcomes of the initiative that Northerners referred to as Longstreet's domestic endeavor. Southern conservative media outlets branded him as disloyal. As criticism from his former Confederate colleagues mounted, due to their disapproval of his participation in what they considered debasing political activities during the Reconstruction era, his determination to defend the Lost Cause only intensified. Longstreet's dedication to the Republican cause was further reinforced by his successful efforts to restore his political rights and secure a pardon.

Practical Tips

• Use social media to amplify voices that challenge racial conventions. Share articles, stories, and posts from activists and thought leaders who are working towards racial equality. By curating a feed that highlights these issues, you can raise awareness among your followers and contribute to a broader cultural shift towards inclusivity.
• Advocate for diversity in local law enforcement by participating in town hall meetings or public forums. Use these platforms to discuss the benefits of a racially diverse police force, drawing parallels to the historical example of Governor Warmoth's militia, and suggest actionable steps for recruitment and community engagement.
• You can explore historical leadership challenges by volunteering at a local historical society or museum. By engaging with the stories and artifacts related to local leaders who faced resistance, you'll gain a deeper understanding of the complexities they navigated. For example, you might help curate an exhibit on local political figures and learn about the opposition they faced, drawing parallels to Longstreet's experiences.
• Start a journal to document instances where you encounter resistance or criticism, noting your emotional and practical responses. This practice can help you analyze patterns in your reactions and develop more constructive responses over time. For instance, if you notice that criticism often makes you defensive, you could work on strategies to remain open and learn from the feedback instead.
• You can analyze media bias by creating a personal media consumption chart to track the sources and perspectives of the news you consume. Start by listing down the media outlets you engage with over a week, noting their political leanings. At the end of the week, review your chart to identify any patterns or biases in your media diet. This can help you understand how certain narratives may be shaped by media bias, similar to how historical figures have been portrayed differently by various outlets.
• Reflect on past mistakes and seek formal forgiveness where possible to rebuild trust and relationships. Just as political rights restoration played a role in Longstreet's life, acknowledging past errors and actively seeking pardon can mend bridges and reinforce your commitment to personal or professional causes. For example, if you've had a falling out with a colleague due to a misunderstanding, approach them to apologize and discuss how you can move forward positively.

Warmoth and Longstreet saw their relationship transform from allies to adversaries, mirroring the internal schisms within the Republican Party.

While Longstreet was earning respect through his leadership of the LSM and his support for African American suffrage, he also harbored reservations regarding Warmoth's intentions and utilized his connections with the Grant administration to influence the president in favor of the group linked with the Custom House and their preferred political nominees. Longstreet's efforts to sustain a unified Republican force within Louisiana and nationally, as well as his aspiration to serve as an honest mediator in a factionalized party, ultimately did not succeed.

President Warmoth, with Grant's backing, established a varied police unit in New Orleans aimed at safeguarding Republican voters throughout the 1868 presidential race, yet he did not fully achieve the objectives of the Radicals because he refrained from enacting laws that would entirely eliminate racial separation in communal areas. Efforts to establish a compromise proved futile and, as Varon notes, only served to deepen the resentment of white conservatives determined to restore white supremacy. As the early part of the 1870s progressed, Longstreet, initially supportive of Warmoth's efforts to bridge the gap between moderate Democrats and Republicans, found himself, along with many Republicans, increasingly disillusioned. In early 1872, Warmoth encountered resistance from a group of Republicans operating out of the New Orleans Custom House, who were in favor of adopting a more proactive approach to protect the voting and civil rights of African Americans. Longstreet initially played the role of a mediator, striving to harmonize the differing perspectives. In the fiercely competitive gubernatorial contest of 1872, Warmoth eventually aligned with the "Fusion" slate, which was led by an ex-Confederate, while Longstreet cast his lot with P. B. S. Pinchback and the revitalized Republican Party under the guidance of Senator William Pitt Kellogg. Longstreet's confidence in Grant, as well as in Black leaders such as Pinchback who doubted Warmoth's dependability in employing his control over political and paramilitary organizations to safeguard the voting rights of Black people from the increasing antagonism of conservative Whites, shaped that decision.

Context

• During Reconstruction, African American suffrage was a contentious issue. Supporting it meant advocating for the rights of formerly enslaved people to vote, which was a radical stance in the post-Civil War South.
• The period was marked by intense political realignment and factionalism within the Republican Party, with divisions between those who supported more radical Reconstruction measures and those who favored a more moderate approach.
• The national Republican strategy during Reconstruction involved balancing the need to enforce civil rights in the South with maintaining political support in the North, a task complicated by differing regional priorities and racial attitudes.
• His efforts to mediate were part of a broader attempt to rehabilitate his image in the post-war South, where he was often viewed with suspicion due to his Republican affiliation and support for African American rights.
• The creation of the police unit was a response to the intense political and racial tensions in New Orleans, where violence and voter intimidation were common tactics used by those opposing Reconstruction policies.
• Henry Clay Warmoth was the Republican governor of Louisiana from 1868 to 1872. His administration was marked by attempts to balance the demands of Radical Republicans with the realities of Southern resistance to racial integration.
• Many white conservatives were committed to restoring white supremacy and viewed any compromise that included African American rights as a threat to their social and political dominance.
• Pinchback was the first African American to become governor of a U.S. state, albeit briefly. His leadership and the support he garnered from figures like Longstreet highlighted the increasing political agency of African Americans during Reconstruction.
• The New Orleans Custom House was a significant political hub where a faction of Republicans, often more aligned with Radical Republican ideals, pushed for stronger enforcement of civil rights and voting protections for African Americans.
• By aligning with the "Fusion" slate, Warmoth was likely attempting to navigate the complex political landscape by forming alliances that could potentially stabilize his power amidst growing factionalism within the Republican Party.
• Kellogg was a prominent Republican politician in Louisiana during Reconstruction. He served as both a U.S. Senator and the Governor of Louisiana. His tenure was marked by efforts to enforce civil rights and combat the resurgence of white supremacist groups.

During the final phase of the Reconstruction period, Longstreet's political influence peaked in New Orleans.

Varon argues that before the White League's violent rise to dominance on September 14, 1874, Warmoth's attempts to create a moderate alliance within the Republican party were not successful. Former Confederate members who formed the Crescent City White League instigated chaos and then established their own version of governance by displacing the Kellogg administration.

The uprising orchestrated by the White League clearly demonstrated opposition to a government that supported diversity and the inclusion of African Americans in military positions.

Varon argues that the White League's revolt, while superficially provoked by the inclusion of different races within the city's police and military forces, was in fact the culmination of profound anxieties among White Southerners about a nascent political order that would recognize and protect the rights of Black people.

In Varon's account, the Crescent City White League's campaign of deceit sought to incite racial fears and panic by spreading unfounded allegations that Alexander Barber, as the commander of the state militia, was at the helm of "Black Leagues" intent on imposing "African supremacy" in New Orleans. Longstreet himself regarded the idea of Black dominance over whites as "silly" and "misleading," and he consistently endeavored, albeit unsuccessfully, to convince the population that the prepared and vigilant Black community posed no danger to the security of white inhabitants. White southerners were convinced that race relations were a zero-sum game, with the conviction that any progress made by African Americans, whether it involved joining the police force in New Orleans, establishing armed groups in South Carolina and Louisiana, or achieving political representation across various areas, would unavoidably lead to disadvantages and possible domination for the white population. As the White Leaguers' unease grew, their denunciations of African American officials increasingly merged with insinuations regarding manliness, and with each scornful comment about Longstreet's political decisions, they escalated their condemnation of his military tactics. The League sought to tarnish his image of bravery and resilience by calling him indecisive and insultingly dubbing him a "hermaphrodite," in the words of a detractor.

Practical Tips

• Volunteer with organizations that support veterans from diverse backgrounds to gain firsthand insight into their experiences. Look for local chapters of national organizations or community groups that focus on veterans' affairs and offer your time. Through conversations and shared activities, you'll learn about the challenges and triumphs of veterans from different backgrounds, which can reshape your understanding of inclusion in military roles.
• Start a personal project to document local history through interviews with community elders. This can help bridge generational gaps and dispel myths or fears based on incomplete historical knowledge. For instance, you might discover stories of cooperation and unity between different racial groups in your area that aren't widely known, which can challenge prevailing narratives.
• Engage in active media literacy by critically evaluating the language used in political campaigns or public speeches. Pay attention to how certain groups are described and the attributes assigned to them, especially regarding competence and gender stereotypes. Note these instances and discuss them with friends or family to raise awareness of subtle prejudices and their historical roots.
• You can analyze decision-making under pressure by journaling your choices during stressful situations. After a high-pressure event, write down the decisions you made, your thought process, and the outcomes. Reflect on these entries to identify patterns in your resilience and decision-making style, and consider alternative choices you could have made.