PDF Summary:Kalam Cosmological Arguments, by Mohammed Hijab

Throughout history, philosophers have offered cosmological arguments in an attempt to logically prove God's existence through the nature of the universe. In Kalam Cosmological Arguments, Mohammed Hijab unpacks the distinct approaches of Islamic thinkers like Ibn Sina, Al-Ghazali, and Ibn Taymiyyah. Hijab examines their methods of differentiating the contingent from the necessary, analyzing the origins of the cosmos, and integrating theology and Quranic principles into their reasoning.

Ultimately, Hijab presents what he believes is the most compelling cosmological case: the distinction between necessary and contingent beings. Because the universe as we experience it is contingent and dependent on something else, it must rely on an independent, necessary being — God — as the ultimate source and cause of existence.

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Al-Ghazali's Views on Infinite Regress: Planetary Rotations and Absurdities of Infinity

To support his argument, Al-Ghazali challenges the possibility of a limitless backward chain of causes, times, or movements. He employs the example of rotating planets, arguing that if the universe were eternal, with planets rotating at different speeds for an infinite duration, we would encounter logical absurdities, such as one infinity being multiplied by another. Al-Ghazali's logic aligns with the argument that an actual, completed infinity within the physical world would lead to contradictions.

Other Perspectives

• Modern cosmology and physics entertain the possibility of an eternal universe without beginning or end, which does not inherently produce contradictions.
• The rotation of planets does not necessarily provide evidence against the eternity of the universe; it merely illustrates a physical process within the universe.
• The concept of infinity in mathematics does not necessarily lead to logical absurdities; it is a well-established concept that can be consistently and coherently used in various mathematical contexts.
• Quantum mechanics and theories of the multiverse introduce concepts where infinite outcomes and parallel universes are considered, which challenges the notion that infinity in the physical world is necessarily contradictory.

Critics Say Al-Ghazali's Causation and Composition Assumptions Are Flawed in His Cosmological Argument

Despite its intuitive appeal, Al-Ghazali’s argument for the cosmos faces significant criticism. One objection centers on his assertion that all things that begin have a cause. Critics, like Hume and Russell, point to issues with inductive reasoning. Just because we observe causation within the universe doesn't guarantee it applies to the entire universe. Russell also points out the error of assuming the whole has the same properties as its parts: Inferring a cause for the entire universe based on the observation of causes within the universe might be a flawed generalization.

Practical Tips

• Challenge your assumptions by writing down daily occurrences and questioning their causes. For example, if you notice a plant in your garden has died, instead of assuming it's due to a lack of water, consider other factors like soil quality, sunlight, or pests. This practice encourages critical thinking and helps you avoid jumping to conclusions.
• Use a decision-making app that requires you to list reasons for your choices, then analyzes the strength of your inductive reasoning. The app could provide feedback on the likelihood of your reasoning leading to a correct conclusion based on historical data and logical analysis. This immediate feedback loop can help you refine your decision-making process over time.
• Engage in a "Reverse Brainstorming" session where you identify a problem and then list all the ways it doesn't relate to its components. For instance, if you're dealing with a sluggish computer, instead of focusing on individual parts like the hard drive or RAM, consider how the issue might be unrelated to the components, such as software conflicts or external factors like temperature. This helps you to avoid the fallacy of composition by considering a wider range of potential causes.
• Start a "cause and effect" journal where you document personal experiences and reflect on the immediate causes without attributing them to a grand scheme. This could be as simple as noting that you felt happy after a walk without attributing the feeling to a larger narrative about the universe's influence on your mood.

Al-Ghazali's Particularization Theory Attributes the World's Features to an Outside "Sorting Agent" to Address Objections About the Necessity of the World's State

To address objections about the seemingly arbitrary nature of reality, Al-Ghazali introduces the particularization theory. He argues that things with specific characteristics—like the particular speed of a planet's rotation or a person's height—point to an external "sorting agent,” God, who chooses these particulars from a range of possibilities. He contends that if inherent properties dictated the world's configuration, everything would manifest uniformly and simultaneously, but that isn't how things are.

Context

• The theory raises questions about the nature of divine will and the extent to which God is involved in the details of creation, influencing debates on determinism and free will.
• His ideas significantly influenced Islamic philosophy, encouraging a view of the universe as a creation with purpose and meaning, shaped by divine will.
• Al-Ghazali's ideas were developed in response to earlier Greek philosophical traditions, particularly those of Aristotle, which emphasized naturalistic explanations for the world's order.
• By attributing the world's specific features to an external agent, the theory avoids the problem of infinite regress, where each cause would require another preceding cause ad infinitum.

Islamic Theology and Cosmology Arguments

This section examines how Islamic thinkers, particularly Ibn Taymiyyah, integrate Quranic concepts and Muslim theology into their cosmological reasoning.

Ibn Taymiyyah Links Cosmological Reasoning To Quranic Concepts

Ibn Taymiyyah, while critiquing aspects of both the arguments of philosophers and the Ash'arites, sees a strong connection between cosmological reasoning and Quranic concepts. He contends that the Quran, particularly in its descriptions of divine attributes and actions, implicitly supports the idea of God as the ultimate, necessary cause of the universe.

Ibn Taymiyyah Confirms Avicenna's "Necessary Existence," Critiques Ash'arite Cosmological Argument

While Ibn Taymiyyah agrees with the idea of "necessary existence" (wajib al-wujood), he takes issue with certain aspects of how the Ash'arites, including Al-Ghazali, frame the cosmological argument. He suggests that their emphasis on the world's beginning, while important, shouldn't be the sole basis for demonstrating that God exists.

Practical Tips

• Start a casual blog or social media page where you discuss and break down complex philosophical ideas into everyday language and examples. This will not only solidify your own understanding but also help others who might be intimidated by academic philosophy to engage with challenging concepts.

Other Perspectives

• The focus on the world's beginning can be particularly compelling in a historical context where the idea of an eternal universe was prevalent, providing a clear counterpoint to the philosophical and theological views of the time.

Ibn Taymiyyah: Employing the Quranic Attributes of God to Bolster Cosmological Argument

Ibn Taymiyyah emphasizes that the Quran's depiction of God's attributes, such as being the "Self-Sufficient" (Al-Qayyum) and the "Eternal" (Al-Samad), provide a strong foundation for a cosmological argument. He argues that understanding these attributes necessarily leads to the conclusion that God is the ultimate, independent source of all existence.

Other Perspectives

• The cosmological argument itself has been critiqued by philosophers who propose that the existence of a necessary being does not necessarily have to be a deity, let alone the specific conception of God in Islam.
• The concept of God being "Self-Sufficient" and "Eternal" does not necessarily exclude the possibility of multiple gods or entities with similar attributes, which would challenge the idea of a single independent source of all existence.

God as a "Required Being" in Major Islamic Thought

The author emphasizes that the notion of God as the "Essential Being" (wajib al-wujood) finds widespread acceptance within major Islamic schools of thought, including the Ash'arites, Mu'tazilites, and Shi'a thinkers. While theological differences exist, the core idea of God as the ultimate, independent, and self-sufficient being – upon which all contingent entities rely – remains a common thread.

Practical Tips

• Engage in a weekly discussion with friends or family members about the role of an "Essential Being" in daily life. Each week, pick a different aspect of life, such as ethics, community, or personal growth, and explore how the idea of an "Essential Being" might influence these areas. This will not only help you apply the concept but also encourage others to consider its implications in a variety of contexts.
• Enhance your critical thinking by journaling your responses to ethical dilemmas presented in religious narratives. Reflect on how the principles of Ash'arite, Mu'tazilite, and Shi'a thought would approach these scenarios, and write down your own solutions, comparing them to the perspectives you've learned about.
• Volunteer for community service projects that aim to support those in need, as this can be a way of embodying the principle of being an agent of the foundational support you believe in. When you help others, you might find that you feel connected to a larger purpose or foundation. For instance, while volunteering at a food bank, consider how your actions are part of a bigger picture of interconnected support.
• Create a piece of art that represents your vision of a required being, using materials you have at home like paper, paint, or digital tools. This creative process allows you to externalize and visualize your concept of a foundational presence, which can be a powerful way to connect with the idea on a personal level.

Author's Proposal for the "Most Compelling" Argument From the Universe's Origin

In this final section, Hijab outlines what he considers the most logically sound and persuasive version of the cosmological argument, drawing on elements from both Avicenna and Al-Ghazali.

Necessary vs. Contingent Beings in Cosmological Reasoning

Hijab presents the "strongest" case for God's existence by building on the distinction between necessary and possible existence. He argues that the world, as we experience it, is demonstrably contingent, meaning it could have been different or even non-existent.

The Author Argues the World Depends On an Independent Necessary Being

Hijab argues that because the world is contingent, it can't explain itself. It must ultimately depend on a Necessary Being, whose existence is independent of any other entity. This Necessary Being is self-sufficient, independent, and the ultimate source of existence for the universe.

Practical Tips

• Engage in a weekly "Random Acts of Kindness" challenge where you do something positive for others without expecting anything in return. This activity helps you contribute to the world's contingency by adding unpredictable positive moments to someone else's life. You might pay for a stranger's coffee or leave a thank-you note for a coworker, thereby creating a ripple effect of goodwill.
• Engage in a thought experiment where you imagine a world without a Necessary Being for one week. Each day, note down changes you observe in your perception of the world and your interactions. This can help you explore the implications of such a concept on a personal level and understand its significance in your worldview.
• Practice decision-making without seeking advice or approval from others. Next time you're faced with a choice, big or small, make a conscious effort to trust your own judgment and make the decision based on your own reasoning. This could range from choosing a meal at a restaurant to deciding on a new career path. The goal is to strengthen your confidence in your independent existence and capability.
• Start a personal project that requires you to learn new skills, like gardening or basic home repairs, to cultivate self-sufficiency and reduce the need for outside help.
• Engage in a weekly practice of mindfulness or meditation focused on the interconnectedness of all things. During these sessions, concentrate on the feeling of being part of something greater than yourself, which can foster a sense of peace and unity. This practice can be a direct application of contemplating the Necessary Being's role in the universe to your own sense of inner harmony.

Ontological (Mind) or Cosmological (Physical) Arguments Satisfy Idealists and Materialists Without Specific Cosmic Claims

One of the strengths of this argument, as highlighted by Hijab, is its flexibility. It isn't dependent on specific claims about the universe's beginning or its physical properties. The argument holds regardless of whether the universe is everlasting or had a beginning, finite or infinite. This makes it suitable for both those who favor ontological arguments, focused on the nature of being, and those preferring cosmological arguments, based on viewing the universe.

Practical Tips

• Create a visual representation of your life as a timeline on a scroll of paper, marking significant events and imagining it extending infinitely in both directions. This activity can provide a tangible sense of the continuum of existence, prompting you to consider your place within a potentially everlasting universe and how your actions resonate beyond your immediate perception of time.
• Create a visual mind map that connects different ontological and cosmological arguments with real-world applications. For instance, if you find a particular argument compelling, think about how it might influence ethical decisions, scientific inquiries, or artistic expressions. This visual representation can help you see the practical implications of abstract philosophical concepts.

Refute Argument Through Denying Necessary Vs. Possible Beings Distinction

The author concludes that the only way to challenge this "strongest version" of this cosmological reasoning is to reject the fundamental distinction between necessary and possible existence. One would have to argue that only possible beings exist or propose a model of existence that doesn't need an ultimate, necessary ground of being.

Other Perspectives

• Necessary beings, as traditionally defined, are those whose non-existence is impossible, which implies that their existence provides a foundation for the existence of possible beings.
• It could be argued that the existence of abstract objects, such as numbers or mathematical truths, implies some form of necessary existence, which a model without a necessary ground of being would have to account for in a different way.