PDF Summary:Five Proofs of the Existence of God, by Edward Feser

Does God exist? In Five Proofs of the Existence of God, Edward Feser presents five philosophical arguments aimed at proving God's existence.

He lays out the Aristotelian argument that an ultimate, fully actualized cause—God—is necessary to account for change and motion in the world. Feser then offers additional arguments, such as the idea that abstractions like mathematics and the laws of logic require grounding in a divine, eternal intellect. He examines the differences between essence and existence in contingent beings, concluding that a purely self-existent being—God—is required. The book also touches on God's attributes and His relationship with creation.

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God's Nature and World Relationship

Having established God's existence through five different proofs, Feser then delves into understanding God's nature and its implications for his relationship with the created world, relying on principles like proportionate causality, action following being, and the analogy of existence.

God's Attributes

This section explores God's various characteristics, demonstrating how they're logically derived from his nature as established in the previous arguments.

God's Oneness Stemming From Pure Actuality

Feser contends that God is purely actuality, devoid of any potentiality, both in his existence and in his activity. Potential in either realm would necessitate parts, contradicting the divine's simplicity. He further argues that this pure actuality necessitates God's oneness or unity. Distinction between multiple beings requires elements like metaphysical components such as genus and species, or distinct parcels of matter, all of which presuppose potentiality. Because God lacks potentiality, He cannot possess any distinguishing characteristics, and therefore must be unique. Consequently, Feser asserts that the religious belief established through previous arguments is monotheistic: God is singular.

Practical Tips

• Create a 'pure actuality' journal where you document instances where you've completed tasks or achieved goals without procrastination or delay. This could be as simple as paying bills the day they arrive or as significant as applying for a job the moment you find the listing. The act of recording these moments can reinforce the habit of immediate action.
• Apply the principle of reducing parts to enhance unity in your personal relationships by focusing on shared values and goals. In practice, this could mean setting aside time each week to connect with a partner or friend on a deeper level, discussing what truly matters to both of you, rather than getting caught up in the day-to-day minutiae.
• Explore your personal identity by creating a "taxonomy of self" chart. Start by listing broad categories that define you (like 'professional', 'hobbies', 'beliefs') and then break each down into more specific subcategories (like 'engineer', 'painting', 'stoicism'). This mirrors the concept of genus and species, helping you understand the different layers of your identity.
• Create a personal symbol that represents the concept of uniqueness to you, using art supplies or digital design tools. This symbol can serve as a daily reminder of the unique nature of the divine or whatever you consider unparalleled. You could draw inspiration from nature, abstract shapes, or combine different elements that signify uniqueness to you, and display this symbol in your home or workspace.
• Develop a meditation routine focused on the idea of oneness to internalize the concept of a singular deity. Spend a few minutes each day in quiet contemplation, visualizing the unity of all things under one divine presence. This can foster a sense of peace and interconnectedness that aligns with the monotheistic view.

God's Simplicity, Unchanging Nature, Timelessness, and Incorporeality Arise From Pure Actuality

Feser continues by demonstrating how other attributes naturally flow from God's pure actuality. He argues that God possesses a simple nature without any composition because anything with parts would need something to combine those parts, making it non-ultimate and dependent, in contrast to God as the initial cause. He emphasizes the importance of divine simplicity, arguing that denying it implicitly denies God's one-of-a-kind nature and ultimate status and therefore, is akin to atheism.

God's changelessness also results from His being purely actuality. Change implies a transition from potential to actual, but since God is wholly actual, God is unchanging. Feser acknowledges objections that God creating the world involves a change, but explains that creation is a mere "Cambridge change", a transformation in the universe, not in God himself. He further demonstrates God's immutability by arguing that it also follows from his simplicity – real change requires parts that can be gained or lost, which God, as a simple being, lacks.

Feser then addresses objections regarding God acting as implying change, refuting them by arguing that action, primarily involving bringing about effects, doesn’t necessitate change in the one acting. He uses the example of teaching: its essence is causing someone to learn, and the teacher isn't required to change. In the same way, God is able to create without changing, as creation simply involves His bringing the world into existence.

He then connects divine changelessness to eternity. Because anything that exists within time undergoes change, God, who is unchanging, must transcend time altogether. Feser emphasizes that divine eternity is not just longevity or existing throughout time, but timelessness, existence beyond time. He explains that God brings the world into being at various times through a single, timeless act, analogous to an author instantly conceiving an entire story, beginning, middle, and end.

Divine incorporeality additionally results from God's simplicity and lack of potential. Feser explains that Aristotelian metaphysics asserts that material bodies consist of matter and form, both implying parts, while matter itself entails potentiality. Because God is simple and entirely actual, God can't be material. He further reinforces this point by arguing that even non-Aristotelian conceptions of matter imply parts and the potential to change (consider atoms and their constituent sub-atomic particles), which God, a simple and purely actual being, lacks.

Practical Tips

• Create a "simplicity journal" to document instances where reducing parts or steps in a process improves efficiency or satisfaction. This could be as simple as reorganizing your workspace to have only essential items within reach, which could lead to a more focused and productive work environment. Note the changes and how they affect your daily life over a period of weeks.
• Reflect on your own life to identify areas where you can embody consistency and reliability, mirroring the concept of unchangeability. For example, if you commit to a new habit, such as exercising every morning, stick to it with unwavering dedication, demonstrating to yourself and others that you can be a constant in a world of change.
• Create art that explores the concept of transformation without altering the medium's essence. Use materials that change in appearance or form with external influences, like heat-sensitive paint or water-soluble paper, to represent change that doesn't involve a fundamental alteration of the material itself.
• Create a 'simplicity challenge' where for one week, you focus on a single virtue or principle you value highly, and make all your decisions based on this guiding principle. This could be kindness, honesty, or any other fundamental value. Observe how this focus influences your actions and whether it leads to a more 'immutable' state of being, where your actions are less subject to change due to external circumstances.
• Create a "Change-O-Meter" for your activities, a simple tracking system where you rate the change each action has on you from 1 to 10. Engage in various activities, such as volunteering, mentoring, or learning a new skill, and then rate how much each activity changed you. This will help you identify which actions lead to personal growth and which are merely routine.
• Engage in a "static influence" challenge where, for one week, you focus on affecting your environment or helping others without seeking any personal gain or change. Document the outcomes and reflect on how this approach impacts your relationships and surroundings. This could involve acts of kindness, providing support, or sharing knowledge without expecting anything in return.
• Create art without a deadline to step outside the flow of time. Engage in a creative activity such as painting, writing, or playing music with no time constraints. This encourages immersion in the process, which can lead to experiences where time seems to stand still, providing a personal understanding of timelessness.
• Engage in a 'timeless act' of your own by planning and executing a meaningful project or gesture that benefits others. This could be as simple as planting a tree, which is a single act that contributes to the environment for generations, or writing a heartfelt letter to someone that expresses gratitude or forgiveness. By doing so, you embody the principle of a singular, impactful action that resonates beyond the immediate moment.
• Engage in a digital detox for a set period each week to experience a form of incorporeality. By disconnecting from the digital world, you give yourself the opportunity to focus on the non-material aspects of life, such as relationships, nature, or spirituality. Notice how this practice affects your perception of simplicity and potential in your life.

God's Attributes of Omnipotence, Goodness, Freedom, and All-Knowingness Are Based on His Fully Actual Nature

Feser then explains that God's omnipotence is a logical consequence of His role as the ultimate origin of everything. Every contingent being relies on God at all times for existence, and because action follows being (agere sequitur esse), all contingent beings also rely on God for the ability to act. God, then, is the origin of all power, and everything falls within his power. This, Feser explains, defines omnipotence. He then addresses objections regarding God's ability to create round squares or do logically impossible things, arguing that these are not limitations on his power since self-contradictory concepts don’t express real potentialities.

Feser also argues that God’s perfect goodness stems from His state of pure actuality. He defines goodness objectively, not as subjective preference. A good triangle, for example, is one that most closely embodies the core nature of triangles. A good tree thrives, realizing its inherent potential. Therefore, being bad is a privation, a lack of some good feature, and thus a failure to actualize potential. Because God is completely actual and lacks potential, He cannot possess any badness or privation. He is consequently perfectly good. Addressing objections regarding the existence of evil in the world, Feser argues that evil is not a thing created by God but a privation, a lack of some good that God chose not to actualize. He compares this to a painter deciding not to finish a geometric shape he started, the unfinished shape representing an absence of a positive quality rather than containing a negative quality. Similarly, God’s perfect goodness is compatible with His permitting evil, as evil can ultimately serve a greater good, a point he further elaborates in his discussion of God's connection to creation.

Continuing his exploration of God's attributes, Feser argues that God possesses will, analogous to rational appetite in humans. He explains this by comparing God to trees and animals, both naturally inclining toward realizing their inherent characteristics. While God isn't required to realize His own essence (being already fully actual), He still possesses a kind of “rational appetite” or will directed toward creation. This will is also free, Feser argues, since God depends on nothing external to Himself, and because he chooses from a range of possible creations, as evidenced by the world's existence. God wasn't driven internally or externally to create this particular world. Feser then addresses objections regarding the apparent conflict between God’s freedom and His being simple. He clarifies that freedom of action doesn't inherently involve potential, and similarly, action doesn't inherently entail alteration. He acknowledges the difficulty in comprehending this concept but points out that this is an expected consequence of pushing rational inquiry to its limits.

Concerning God's omniscience, Feser uses the idea that an effect resembles its cause. Since God causes everything besides Himself, whatever exists in those things must exist in God in some way. However, they can't exist within Him formally like they do in material things (God is immaterial), nor can they exist in Him merely as limited instances of universals (as in angels). Therefore, everything is contained within Him virtually, as concepts within a mind. Feser concludes, therefore, that God must possess intellect. He further contends that God not only possesses concepts, but propositions describing every possible situation, because God’s act of creation brings about the truth or falsity of them. Similar to a writer who knows the tale he created, God comprehends all truths through his self-knowledge as the creator.

This divine knowledge, Feser argues, meets all criteria of understanding. God thinks about every proposition p, p is true because God causes it to be true, and God’s way of “finding out” if p is true is through His own creative act. This means God has knowledge, and because this applies to every possible proposition about God himself and everything else, He possesses all knowledge and is, therefore, omniscient. Feser then distinguishes how God has knowledge of the world from human knowledge. God doesn’t observe the world, as he's beyond time and space. His knowledge results from self-knowledge, a knowledge of His act of creation. Feser argues that this understanding of God's all-knowing nature is essential for avoiding misunderstandings about the world. It doesn’t suggest a "four-dimensional" view of time, as God's knowledge is not observational. He knows a universe in time through a timeless act, much like a stationary hunter knows he discharged a bullet despite the bullet's motion.

Feser concludes his discussion of God's attributes by acknowledging that, while we can comprehend God in a general way, He is ultimately incomprehensible in the truest sense due to His simplicity. Our usual method of understanding things by breaking them down into parts is inapplicable to God, as God has no parts. However, he explains that this outcome is expected when pushing reasoning to its limits. Just as physics describes reality that is far removed from everyday experience, requiring us to stretch our language and concepts, natural theology delves even further into the fundamental basis of being, making incomprehensibility an expected consequence.

Practical Tips

• Reflect on your personal origin story to understand how it shapes your current beliefs and actions. By tracing back your own beginnings, whether it's your family history, your cultural background, or your earliest memories, you can gain insight into the foundational beliefs that guide your life. This self-reflection can help you identify the core values and principles that act as your 'ultimate origin,' influencing your decisions and actions today.
• Engage in creative problem-solving by challenging yourself to think of solutions that initially seem impossible. For instance, if you're faced with a task at work that seems too big to handle, break it down into smaller, manageable parts and find unconventional ways to tackle each segment.
• Create a "goodness ripple" by performing random acts of kindness and encouraging recipients to pay it forward. This could be as simple as paying for the next person's coffee or offering your seat on public transport. The idea is to initiate a chain reaction of goodness that amplifies the concept of pure actuality through practical, everyday gestures.
• Volunteer with a local ethics committee to gain a deeper understanding of how communities define and enforce objective goodness. By participating in discussions and decision-making processes, you'll see firsthand how ethical standards are applied in real-world scenarios, which can help you refine your own understanding of objective goodness.
• Reflect on personal experiences where you felt something was missing and identify the good that was absent. By recognizing the specific good that's lacking in situations you perceive as negative, you can better understand the nature of the 'evil' or negativity you're experiencing. For example, if you're feeling unfulfilled at work, consider what aspects of 'good' might be missing – is it recognition, challenge, or purpose?
• Reflect on your daily decisions to identify where your will aligns with your rational desires. By doing this, you can better understand how your choices are influenced by your rational appetite, similar to the concept of divine will. For example, when deciding to volunteer at a local shelter, consider if this decision is driven by a deep-seated rational desire to help others, which could be seen as a reflection of a higher purpose or will.
• Volunteer for initiatives that focus on creation care or community building. By actively participating in efforts to preserve or enhance the world around you, you embody the principle of free will directed toward creation. Look for local conservation projects, community gardens, or groups that work on improving public spaces, and contribute your time and energy to these causes.
• Engage in improvisational activities, such as improv theater games or musical jam sessions, to experience the freedom of creating in the moment. These activities can show you how creation and action can occur without the necessity of potential, aligning with the book's theme of divine freedom. You could join a local improv group or simply play improvisational games with friends or family.
• Engage in role-playing exercises with friends or family to practice behaviors that mirror your intended 'cause'. Take turns acting out scenarios where you embody the principles you hold dear, and receive feedback on how closely your actions reflect those principles. For instance, if you value leadership, you could role-play a situation where you guide a team through a challenge, focusing on demonstrating leadership qualities.
• You can explore the concept of a divine intellect through creative writing by crafting stories or poems that personify wisdom and knowledge. This exercise allows you to imagine how an all-knowing being might perceive the world and interact with it. For example, write a short story from the perspective of wisdom itself, navigating through human experiences and offering insights.
• You can create a personal "situations journal" to explore different life scenarios. Start by writing down a variety of situations you could potentially encounter in your life, ranging from the mundane to the extraordinary. For each situation, jot down how you might respond, what emotions you might feel, and what the outcomes could be. This exercise can help you prepare for life's unpredictability and develop a more proactive mindset.
• Engage in a "self-dialogue" exercise to deepen your self-awareness. Schedule a quiet time where you can have an honest conversation with yourself, either aloud or in writing. Ask yourself probing questions about your life's purpose, your reactions to certain events, and your aspirations. This practice can mirror the introspective aspect of divine self-knowledge and enhance your personal clarity.
• Volunteer for a community mediation service to help others resolve conflicts. By participating in conflict resolution, you gain firsthand experience in how misunderstandings arise and the importance of having all the relevant information to resolve them effectively. You'll learn to listen actively and help parties involved uncover the full context of their issues.
• Write poetry using minimalist techniques to capture the essence of complex ideas. Poetry can distill vast concepts into a few poignant words. Challenge yourself to write short poems, no longer than three lines, that touch on themes of complexity, existence, or spirituality. Share these poems with friends or on social media to start conversations about the beauty of simplicity and the mystery of things beyond our understanding.

God's Relationship to Creation

Having established the divine attributes, Feser then turns to understanding how God relates to the created world, exploring concepts like divine conservation, concurrence, and the potential for miracles.

World's Existence Relies On Divine Conservation

Feser argues that the reasoning proving God also suggests the world constantly relies on God to continue existing. This is called divine conservation. Creation is not a one-time event, but an ongoing act by which God sustains the world in being constantly. Feser refutes the alternative thesis of “existential inertia” (the notion that objects, once existing, tend to continue existing on their own), arguing that its proponents offer no explanation for this supposed property and that it clashes with the arguments proving that composite, contingent beings rely on something else.

He distinguishes this dependence from pantheism, pointing out that although the world depends on God, it’s distinct from Him, as evidenced by the contrast between God’s uncomplicated nature and the universe's composite nature. This distinction, combined with agere sequitur esse, leads to the belief in divine concurrence.

Practical Tips

• Create a visual representation of interconnectedness by crafting a personal 'web of life' collage. Gather images, quotes, and items that represent important aspects of your life and arrange them on a large poster or digital canvas, connecting them with lines to symbolize how they are sustained and interrelated. This activity can serve as a daily reminder of your belief in a sustaining force and help you visualize how various elements of your life are not isolated but part of a greater whole.
• Reflect on the interconnectedness of life by starting a daily gratitude journal focused on the world around you. Each day, write down three things in nature or society that you're grateful for, acknowledging the sustaining forces behind them. For example, you might express gratitude for the rain nourishing the earth or the community workers maintaining local parks.
• Conduct a "What If?" analysis to assess your preparedness for the loss of certain supports. Ask yourself hypothetical questions like "What if I lost my job?" or "What if there was a power outage for a week?" and write down your action plans. This can help you develop resilience and contingency plans for when external supports might fail.
• Engage in nature walks with the intention of identifying the underlying simplicity in the natural world. Take note of how the basic elements of earth, water, air, and fire combine to create diverse ecosystems. This practice can help you appreciate the foundational simplicity that supports the universe's complexity.

God Supports Secondary Causation Without Disrupting Nature

Feser juxtaposes concurrence with two opposing views: occasionalism (God is the only true cause, with created things lacking any power to cause) and mere conservationism (God conserves things, but they act independently). He rejects occasionalism because it entails that only God genuinely exists, since He's the only true actor, contradicting our knowledge of our own existence and undermining the very arguments that lead to God as a First Cause. Mere conservationism is rejected because it implies that creation can stand alone, without God, contradicting the proofs for His constant, necessary preservation and cooperative action.

Feser explains that concurrence strikes a balance between these perspectives. It acknowledges the authentic ability of secondary causes to affect events while asserting their dependence on divine power. God cooperates in every act of creation, like a parent guiding a child's hand to write a letter. Both father and child cause the letter, but the child’s contribution depends on the father's guidance.

Practical Tips

• Create a discussion group with friends or colleagues to examine the effects of different causal beliefs on teamwork and collaboration. During a group project, actively discuss how each member views their contribution: Are they the sole driver of their part of the project, or do they see their efforts as part of a larger, collaborative force? This can lead to deeper insights into group dynamics and personal philosophies of action.
• Engage in a thought experiment where for one week, you consciously credit all personal achievements to your efforts rather than external forces. This can help you assess the impact of belief in sole causation on your sense of agency. If you complete a project successfully, instead of attributing it to luck or destiny, acknowledge the hard work and decisions that led to the outcome.
• Start a journal to reflect on your experiences with nature, focusing on your feelings and thoughts about the environment as separate from any spiritual or divine influence. This practice can help you explore your personal beliefs about the independence of creation. You might write about a sunrise you watched or a walk in the forest, describing the intrinsic value you find in these experiences without attributing them to a higher power.

Miracles Suspend, Not Violate, the Laws of Nature

Finally, Feser addresses whether miracles can occur, emphasizing the distinction between this potential and whether specific miracles have actually happened (a matter that natural theology doesn't cover). He challenges the common idea that miracles violate natural laws, arguing that from an Aristotelian-Thomistic perspective, laws of nature simply describe the tendencies of things based on their nature. If a tendency doesn't manifest because of blocked conditions or a lack of triggers, that doesn't amount to violating it. He further argues that since laws of nature are based on the essence of things, and essences are metaphysically required (though contingent on God's choice to create those essences), genuine violations are impossible.

Rather than constituting violations, Feser defines miracles as phenomena beyond the natural realm that elevate nature to a power beyond its natural capabilities. They don't break laws but "suspend" them, similar to when authorities pause a law's enforcement. He distinguishes miracles from preternatural events (extraordinary events caused by finite beings like angels within nature), emphasizing God's unique, transcendent ability to cause events.

Feser then explores what miracles are through various analogies. The world as a musical score, with divine conservation analogous to following the score and miracles akin to improvisation; or the world as a movie, with conservation being the original release and miracles the director’s cut; or the world as a story, with miracles being additions made in a republished edition. He clarifies that, unlike additions, miracles can also involve reducing elements of the natural order, like God suspending His conservation and concurrence to prevent fire from burning, as in the story of Shadrach, Meshach, and Abednego in the blazing furnace. This suspension doesn’t imply God violating the natural order but simply refraining from sustaining it in a specific instance.

Feser concludes by explaining that miracles would serve as evidence of divine revelation, bridging natural theology and theology based on revelation. A prophet's performance of miracles would provide reasonable justification for viewing his teachings as divinely ordained. He emphasizes that this doesn’t mean accepting any arbitrary claim of revelation, but only those backed by genuine miracles, showcasing the reasoned foundation of faith.

Practical Tips

• Use your understanding of natural tendencies to improve relationships. Pay attention to the natural responses of friends and family in various situations. If a friend is naturally introverted, plan more intimate gatherings rather than large parties to accommodate their disposition, fostering a more comfortable and enjoyable interaction.
• Identify personal tendencies that are not manifesting and analyze the conditions or triggers that might be blocking them. For example, if you notice you're not exercising regularly, consider if there's a lack of a trigger, such as not having your workout clothes visible. To counteract this, place your gear in a prominent place to serve as a visual cue.
• Reflect on your daily routines to identify patterns that align with natural laws. For example, if you notice that you're more productive at certain times of the day, consider that there might be a natural rhythm at play. Adjust your schedule to harness this pattern, perhaps by tackling complex tasks during your peak productivity hours.
• Experiment with cause and effect in everyday life to grasp the inevitability of natural laws. For instance, try growing two plants, one with adequate sunlight and water and the other with limited resources. Monitor their growth and document the differences. This hands-on approach will demonstrate how natural laws, like photosynthesis and water necessity for plant growth, are unbreakable rules governing life.
• Explore the power of intention by setting a 'miracle goal' that stretches your belief in what's possible. Choose something you deeply desire but seems just out of reach, and focus your energy on visualizing and working towards it. This practice can shift your mindset from seeing limitations to exploring potentials, much like a miracle elevates nature.
• Reflect on personal experiences that you've previously attributed to supernatural causes and reevaluate them with a critical eye to distinguish between what could be considered a miracle and what might be an unusual but explainable event. This exercise encourages you to develop a more discerning perspective on extraordinary occurrences in your life, fostering a balance between skepticism and belief.
• Create a "Miracle Discussion Group" with friends or community members to share stories of unexplained phenomena. This can be a casual, regular meetup where each person brings a story of an event that seemed to break the natural order. The purpose is to collectively explore the concept of miracles in a supportive environment. For instance, someone might share an anecdote of a spontaneous recovery from illness that doctors couldn't explain, prompting a group discussion on the nature of such events.
• Engage in reflective photography by capturing images that represent 'miraculous' moments to you. This could be a sunrise that feels particularly inspiring or an unexpected encounter with wildlife. The act of photographing these moments requires you to be present and mindful, potentially enhancing your appreciation for the miraculous in the everyday. Later, you can look back at these photos to remind yourself of these instances.
• You can explore historical accounts of miracles to deepen your understanding of their impact on followers. Start by researching various religious texts and historical documents that describe miracles. This will give you a broader perspective on how miracles have been used to affirm the authority of spiritual leaders and how these events have shaped the beliefs of societies.
• Create a "Miracle Meter" mobile app concept that allows users to input claims of revelations and assess them against a set of predefined criteria to determine their likelihood of being genuine miracles. This tool would help you and others to systematically evaluate claims and understand the standards that such claims should meet.
• Start a "Miracle Journal" to document moments that reinforce your faith. Keep a small notebook or digital document where you jot down daily or weekly experiences that feel like small miracles or significant coincidences. This practice can help you reflect on events that may strengthen your belief in a reasoned foundation of faith. For example, if you come across an unexpected solution to a problem after a period of reflection or prayer, note it down along with your thoughts on how it might relate to your faith.

Opposition to Theological Philosophy and Responses

This section addresses common objections leveled against natural theology and theistic proofs, providing detailed rebuttals and elucidating the misconceptions underlying these objections.

Objections Concerning Causality and God's Necessity

This subsection tackles objections that specifically challenge the notion of a First Cause and the concept of God's necessity.

Objection: "If God Is Uncaused, What Caused Him?" Ignores His Purely Actual Nature, Which Excludes a Cause

Feser begins by addressing what he considers the most prevalent and yet misguided objection: "If every effect has a cause, what caused God?" He systematically dismantles this objection, demonstrating how it stems from a fundamental misunderstanding of the arguments it aims to refute. He emphasizes that arguments supporting God's existence don't rely on the idea that "all things have causes." Instead, they distinguish between things requiring a cause (contingent beings, blends of possibility and actuality, and composites) and a being that doesn’t (the purely actual, simple, necessary God). Therefore, questioning the cause of God is nonsensical; it's like asking what made real the possibilities of something that has no possibilities. Feser dismantles this question by framing it against each proof. What caused the being that is essentially existence? What principle caused a being without components to be composed? What accounted for the being's existence if it has its own sufficient reason? These questions, he asserts, expose the absurdity of demanding an explanation for God, whose nature precludes causation.

Feser then examines the historical roots of this misunderstanding, arguing that it originates from a distorted representation attributed to philosophical theism but never actually advocated by its proponents. He suggests that this straw man argument—"Everything is caused, therefore the universe is caused, and that cause is God"—is widely circulated in popular presentations of cosmological reasoning but is absent in the writings of prominent advocates of the argument.

He traces this misrepresentation back to Hume, proposing that Hume confused the concept of efficient causation used by Scholastics with the sufficient reason principle used by Descartes and Spinoza, both of which Hume conflated with cosmological arguments as a whole. This, Feser suggests, created a tradition of atheism built on a misunderstanding, and this tradition continues to present a distorted view of cosmological reasoning while ignoring their actual premises and claims about God's unique, uncaused nature.

Practical Tips

• Engage in a thought experiment by imagining a world without contingent beings. Visualize how this world would look and function, then compare it to your current understanding of a necessary being. This exercise can help you grasp the concept of necessity and contingency on a more intuitive level.
• Reflect on the concept of infinity to enhance your understanding of the assertion. Infinity is a concept that often defies human understanding, much like the idea of a being without possibilities. Spend time contemplating infinite series in mathematics or the endlessness of space to train your mind to accept concepts that go beyond everyday experience. This can help you grasp the idea of a being without possibilities by drawing parallels with other concepts that challenge human perception.
• Create a personal "Absurdity Challenge" where you identify a belief or concept each week and then try to find an explanation for it, no matter how self-evident it seems. This exercise will help you recognize the limits of demanding explanations and appreciate the possibility of accepting certain truths as given. It can be as simple as asking why we need sleep and exploring all the scientific, philosophical, and practical reasons behind it, eventually understanding that some questions might lead to a fundamental acceptance of human nature.
• Create a personal "misconception checklist" that includes common distortions of the cosmological argument you've learned about. Before engaging with new material or discussions on the topic, review this checklist to prime your mind to recognize and avoid these distortions. As you encounter new distortions, add them to your checklist. This tool can serve as a mental filter, helping you maintain a more accurate understanding of philosophical theism as you explore the subject further.
• Dive into the history of philosophical arguments by starting a philosophy book club. Gather a group of friends or like-minded individuals interested in exploring philosophical ideas and their historical contexts. Each month, select a different philosophical work that touches on causation, the existence of God, or related themes. Use these sessions to discuss how historical interpretations, like Hume's, have shaped modern thinking and how different interpretations could lead to different conclusions.

Proposals That the Universe, Multiverse, or Natural Laws Are Uncaused Fail to Demonstrate a Necessary First Cause

Feser next addresses the objection that the universe, the Big Bang, the multiverse, or the laws of physics might lack a cause or explain themselves. He rejects this by showcasing how each presupposes concepts central to his reasoning. They all exhibit contingency, change, composition, potentiality, or a difference between essence and existence, all of which, according to the arguments, necessitate a cause. Feser argues that while these entities might be part of an infinite causal regression, this regress still requires a necessary first cause for its own explanation, a role none of them can fulfill. He highlights the limitations of invoking "laws of physics" as an ultimate explanation, as the very concept of "laws" presupposes a deeper metaphysical explanation (are they just descriptions of regularities, Platonic entities, divine decrees, or descriptions of substances' natures?) which science alone cannot provide.

Feser concludes by emphasizing that if the universe were uncaused and necessary, that would amount to pantheism, not atheism. The core of his argument remains: something must be self-explanatory, necessary, and uncaused, and that something is God, whether or not it’s identified with the universe.

Other Perspectives

• Quantum mechanics introduces the possibility of acausal events, suggesting that at the fundamental level, some processes may occur without a discernible cause, which could challenge the assumption that a necessary first cause is required.
• The idea that something must be self-explanatory and uncaused could be seen as an assumption rather than a logical necessity, and alternative models of the universe might not require such a foundation.
• Some models of the universe, such as those involving closed time-like curves, suggest that causality can be circular, which would negate the need for a first cause.
• The laws of physics could be emergent properties of the universe that do not require an underlying metaphysical cause.
• The use of Occam's Razor could suggest that introducing a metaphysical layer to explain physical laws adds unnecessary complexity when a simpler scientific explanation might suffice.
• The assertion that an uncaused universe equates to pantheism does not consider atheistic interpretations that do not attribute any form of consciousness or divinity to the universe, but rather view it as a natural, impersonal phenomenon.
• The leap from a necessary, uncaused entity to the traditional characteristics attributed to God (such as omniscience, omnipotence, and benevolence) is not self-evident and requires additional arguments.

Objections Concerning the Range of Natural Theology

This subsection addresses objections claiming that, even if successful, natural theology doesn’t establish the specific God of any religion, that science reigns supreme as the sole source of true knowledge, or that theistic arguments are mere rationalizations.

Scientism Wrongly Claims Genuine Knowledge Comes Exclusively From Science, Excluding Philosophical Arguments

Feser then tackles another popular objection, namely, that the only legitimate way to gain knowledge is through science, and since science doesn't mention God, belief in God is irrational or unjustified. He labels this view “scientism” and meticulously deconstructs it, presenting four main problems with this position.

First, the perspective termed "scientism" defeats itself. The assertion that science is the sole reliable means of acquiring understanding isn't scientific itself. Feser argues that science relies on philosophical assumptions—an objective world, regularities, the capacity of our intellect to grasp those regularities—which cannot be justified by science itself without circularity. He asserts that natural theology, like philosophical arguments in general, provides a rational, extra-scientific means of examining and justifying these very presuppositions, rendering scientism self-contradictory.

Second, in order to avoid self-refutation, this perspective must redefine "science" to include anything offered to counter it, thus trivializing itself and embracing the very views it aims to exclude. If all reasoning is considered scientific, then philosophy, including natural theology, is also scientific, rendering scientism a vacuous claim.

Third, Feser argues that science, due to its methodology, cannot give a complete account of reality. Physics, for example, prioritizes a numerical depiction of the universe, abstracting away from the qualitative richness of our experience. Feser uses a comparison to engineers focusing only on weight for specific calculations and ignoring all other human characteristics, highlighting that the effectiveness of such restricted methods doesn’t validate the claim that nothing else about human beings is real. Similarly, the success of physics in describing the quantifiable aspects of the world doesn’t demonstrate that other aspects, like qualia or consciousness, are nonexistent.

Fourth, he asserts that "natural laws," central to scientific explanation, ultimately fall short of offering a full account of existence. Drawing on the earlier example of Krauss' assertions that the universe emerged from "nothing," Feser emphasizes that appealing to laws just begs the question about the metaphysical nature of laws and their ultimate origin. He examines various philosophical interpretations of laws (Aristotelian, Cartesian, Humean, Platonic), demonstrating how none of them validates the scientistic position, and concludes that a full explanation involves philosophical inquiry, not just scientific exploration.

Feser acknowledges the appeal of the scientific approach, rooted in the undeniable successes of science, but he argues that this appeal stems from a misapplication of those successes. Science excels at explaining aspects of existence that are controllable and predictable, though this doesn’t imply that these facets constitute all of reality. He equates this with Rosenberg's claim supporting scientism, comparing it to the absurd assertion that because devices for detecting metal are superior at finding metallic objects, therefore, metallic objects must be the only real things. The technological and predictive power of science, he emphasizes, doesn’t validate the claim that what science can reveal is all that exists.

He concludes his rebuttal of scientism by asserting that even if science excels in certain domains, questions about the ultimate nature of reality, the justification of science itself, and the interpretation of scientific findings require philosophical examination. Insisting on "naturalizing" philosophy simply rephrases Hume's self-refuting Fork, presenting an incorrect either/or choice between science and conceptual analysis that excludes other valid forms of knowledge, including the knowledge provided by natural theology.

Practical Tips

• Broaden your knowledge base by exploring different fields of study through free online courses or lectures. By learning about subjects outside of science, such as philosophy, history, or literature, you'll gain a more holistic understanding of knowledge. For example, you could take an introductory philosophy course on Coursera or watch a series of lectures on the history of art on Khan Academy.
• Start a journal to document instances where you encounter circular reasoning in everyday life. Whether it's in a news article, a scientific claim, or a casual conversation, note it down. Over time, you'll develop a keener sense of when and how circular reasoning appears, which can enhance your critical thinking skills and help you formulate more robust arguments.
• Start a science and philosophy journal club with friends to discuss the foundational principles of science and their philosophical underpinnings. By meeting regularly, you can select articles or topics that explore the intersection of science and natural theology, fostering a deeper understanding of the presuppositions in scientific inquiry. For example, one session could focus on the principle of uniformity in nature, discussing how it's assumed in scientific laws and how natural theology might provide a rationale for this assumption.
• Create a personal "belief audit" once every few months where you list out beliefs you hold in various areas such as politics, health, and technology. Next to each belief, note whether it is based on scientific evidence, personal experience, or other sources. This self-reflection can help you identify areas where you might be applying scientism without realizing it.
• Engage in discussions about diverse forms of knowledge without defaulting to scientific evidence as the sole arbiter of truth. For instance, when talking about nutrition, consider cultural wisdom and personal experiences alongside scientific studies. This approach can foster a more inclusive understanding of knowledge.
• Incorporate art into your daily routine, whether it's creating it or experiencing it, to tap into the subjective aspects of reality. Artistic expression often captures the human experience in ways that science cannot quantify. Try painting, writing poetry, or even attending performances to explore dimensions of reality that science doesn't cover.
• Start a "Physics in Life" journal to document daily experiences through a qualitative lens. Instead of measuring things in numbers, describe your interactions with the physical world using sensory descriptions and emotions. For example, instead of noting the temperature as 72 degrees, write about how the warmth of the sun felt on your skin and uplifted your mood.
• Engage in a "consciousness conversation" with friends or family once a week. During these conversations, focus on discussing thoughts and feelings that arise from experiences, rather than the factual events themselves. This can help you and your conversation partners become more aware of the non-quantifiable aspects of life, such as emotions, sensations, and the nature of consciousness.
• Volunteer with a local organization that works on legislative advocacy to gain firsthand experience with how laws are formed and the thought processes behind them. This will give you a practical understanding of the complexities involved in law-making and the various factors that influence it. As you participate, ask questions and observe the discussions about the intentions and philosophical underpinnings of the laws the organization supports or opposes.
• Create a "Dialogue Dinner" series with friends or family where each meal is dedicated to discussing a specific topic from both a scientific and philosophical perspective. One dinner could focus on the concept of time, with discussions ranging from the physics of time to the philosophical implications of mortality and the human perception of past and future.
• Create a "Diverse Solutions Brainstorming" group with friends or colleagues to tackle common problems using non-scientific approaches. You might use artistic expression, emotional intelligence, or traditional wisdom to address issues like stress management, and then compare the outcomes with those derived from scientific methods.
• Create art without a plan, using mediums like painting, writing, or sculpting. Start with no end goal in mind and allow the process to unfold naturally, making decisions spontaneously. This encourages embracing uncertainty and the uncontrolled aspects of creativity. You might begin with a random brushstroke on a canvas and let your intuition guide the shapes and colors that follow, resulting in a piece that is entirely unique and unexpected.
• You can explore the limits of scientific understanding by keeping a "Mystery Journal" where you document phenomena or experiences that science currently can't explain. This could include personal experiences that feel significant but lack a scientific explanation, or larger mysteries like consciousness or the origins of the universe. The act of journaling encourages reflection on the vastness of the unknown and the potential for new discoveries.
• Create a personal experiment to test the reliability of scientific principles in everyday life. Pick a basic scientific concept, like gravity or the boiling point of water, and observe it in action, noting any variables that might influence the outcome. Reflect on how this hands-on approach either reinforces or challenges your trust in scientific explanations.

The Arguments for God's Being and Attributes Aren't Undermined by God's Concealment and Evil

Feser then addresses the objections from “divine hiddenness” and the "suffering dilemma," often used to challenge the existence of a benevolent deity. He counters the divine hiddenness argument by first rejecting the claim that if God existed, everyone would plainly see it. He mentions that certain theistic views, like Aristotle's, assert a God indifferent to humanity. He also points out that while some theists do believe in a God who desires a relationship with humans, the argument from hiddenness doesn’t challenge the demonstrations of God's basic attributes (simplicity, immutability, eternity, omnipotence, etc.).

He then challenges the second premise of this argument: that God's existence is actually not apparent to the majority of people. Feser notes that throughout history, most people have believed in some type of divinity. Though they might lack the sophisticated arguments of natural theology, this widespread belief implies that God isn't hidden in any meaningful sense.

He acknowledges that the atheist might consider ordinary religious beliefs to be based on weak reasons, but this, he argues, is analogous to claiming that a layperson’s understanding of scientific concepts is flawed and therefore, scientific truths are hidden from them. Just as the average person understands the basic nature of scientific concepts, they also understand the basic nature of God, even if mixed with oversimplifications and errors.

He further argues that the appeal to “divine hiddenness” ignores the overwhelming historical consensus among experts (including philosophical, scientific, and theological thinkers) that a divine ultimate origin exists. The atheist's assertion that the reasoning these experts relied upon has been refuted, Feser asserts, begs the question and ignores his own demonstrations of their continuing validity, as well as his refutation of shallow criticisms often leveled against these arguments.

Addressing the issue of evil, Feser acknowledges that suffering in the world seems to challenge God’s goodness and power. However, he contends that evil and God's existence aren't logically incompatible. He refutes Mackie’s argument, which asserts that God must eliminate all evil because He is all-powerful and wholly benevolent, by highlighting that God can't actualize illogical possibilities (like creating round squares) and that eliminating certain evils might necessitate eliminating greater goods that depend on them. He uses the example of a good parent allowing a child to experience the discomfort of homework to gain knowledge and develop discipline. Similarly, God might permit evil to be present for a larger benefit, a point explored further in his discussion of God’s love for His creation.

Feser further analyzes Mackie's suggestion that God should have made a universe where beings possess autonomy yet consistently choose good. He agrees that God could have made such a world, but argues that wouldn’t encompass all possible goods. Certain goods, such as forgiving others, being merciful, and having courage, assume the reality of evil. Feser argues that God might permit some evils to allow for the potential of these higher virtues, making His tolerance of evil compatible with His perfect goodness.

He then briefly addresses the "evidential problem of evil," which posits that seemingly pointless suffering (like that of Rowe's fawn) makes it probable that there is no God. He contends that such arguments are effective only if we lack separate reasons to believe in God. Since he has already demonstrated God’s existence and perfect goodness, we know that some greater good must follow from instances of suffering, even if we don't know what that good might be. The “evidential argument,” therefore, assumes that claims of God's existence are false.

Feser also highlights that there may be an afterlife, where God might compensate for the suffering in this world with greater goods. He argues that if we accept the possibility of an afterlife (itself defensible with philosophical arguments), then the issue of evil is further weakened, as the evils of this finite life can be outweighed by the boundless goods of an eternal afterlife. He uses the analogy of a child's inability to grasp the good that follows from the unpleasant experience of homework, chores, and punishments to emphasize that our limited perspective likely prevents us from fully comprehending God's reasons for permitting evil.

Practical Tips

• Create a piece of art that represents the concept of an indifferent universe. This could be a painting, sculpture, or digital artwork that visualizes your interpretation of a world where humanity is not the focus of a higher power's attention. Through this, you can explore and express your feelings about your place in the cosmos.
• Explore different religious traditions to understand their concepts of God's attributes. By learning about various religious beliefs, you can compare and contrast how the idea of God's hiddenness is addressed across cultures. For example, you might attend a local interfaith dialogue or read texts from different religions to see how they reconcile God's hiddenness with His attributes.
• Create a personal "belief map" by drawing connections between different divinities and spiritual practices you encounter. Whenever you learn about a new concept of divinity, add it to your map and draw lines to other concepts that seem related. This visual representation can help you see the broader landscape of human belief systems and find your place within it.
• Engage in a "role reversal" exercise where you explain a religious belief to someone as if it were a scientific concept and vice versa, focusing on the structure of the explanation rather than the content. For instance, when discussing a religious belief such as the power of prayer, use the language of hypothesis, testing, and evidence to describe how you perceive its effects, similar to explaining a scientific experiment's methodology and results.
• Engage in a community service project that aligns with the values you associate with a divine origin. Choose an activity that promotes kindness, compassion, or assistance to others, such as volunteering at a local shelter or organizing a fundraiser for a cause you care about. Reflect on how this service connects to your beliefs about a divine origin and the impact it has on your sense of purpose and community.
• Explore different philosophical perspectives by joining a local discussion group or online forum dedicated to theology and philosophy. Engaging with others who have varying beliefs can help you understand the practical implications of the coexistence of evil and a higher power in everyday life. For example, you might discuss how this belief influences personal accountability and societal justice systems.
• Create a "Greater Good vs. Lesser Evil" decision-making flowchart for everyday use. Use this tool when faced with choices to help determine the potential ripple effects of your actions. For instance, if you're considering skipping a workout to finish a work project, the flowchart could help you assess whether the immediate benefit of completing the project outweighs the long-term benefits of maintaining your health routine.
• Start a small, controlled "discomfort challenge" where you intentionally step out of your comfort zone daily for a set period, like a month. This could be anything from trying a new food, starting a conversation with a stranger, or learning a new skill. Keep a journal to document your experiences and the lessons learned, which will help you appreciate the value of discomfort in personal growth.
• Create a "virtue mapping" project with friends or family. Gather a group and discuss recent personal challenges, then map out the virtues that could potentially be developed from those experiences. This activity encourages a supportive environment where you can collectively identify the positive outcomes that can emerge from negative situations.
• Develop a personal philosophy or manifesto that includes the belief in afterlife compensation and use it to guide daily decisions. Reflect on how this belief influences your actions and choices, such as showing more compassion towards others or being more patient during difficult times. This could involve writing down your values and how they connect to the idea of an afterlife, then reviewing and applying these principles when faced with ethical dilemmas or personal suffering.
• You can deepen your empathy by volunteering at organizations that deal with challenging issues, such as shelters for the homeless or support groups for people going through hardships. By engaging with individuals facing adversity, you'll gain a broader perspective on the complexities of life and the various forms of suffering that exist. This hands-on experience can help you appreciate the nuances of why certain difficulties occur and the resilience it takes to overcome them.