PDF Summary:Empress Dowager Cixi, by Jung Chang

The life and reign of Empress Dowager Cixi, who governed China in the late 19th century, was marked by complexity and adaptation. In her biography Empress Dowager Cixi, Jung Chang explores Cixi's multifaceted journey from a lowly concubine to one of the most powerful rulers in China's modern history.

Faced with domestic revolts and international pressures, Cixi navigated political intrigue and advocated for economic and social reforms, including industrialization and education. While preserving many traditional practices, the Empress forged a path toward embracing selective elements of foreign ideas, forming a precarious balance between progress and tradition.

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The author conveys that while factories might generate new jobs in industry, they could simultaneously render traditional roles for women obsolete, particularly by diminishing the need for handcrafted textiles, which would significantly affect the financial security of women already engaged in such crafts. Cixi believed that initiating industrial production would disturb longstanding customs and lead to a substantial increase in unemployment in a society where textile manufacturing was deeply integrated with familial customs.

Other Perspectives

• Cixi's engagement with Western powers could be seen as a strategic necessity rather than a genuine embrace of Western ideas, as China was in a weakened state following the Opium Wars.
• Some historians argue that Cixi's resistance to certain reforms, such as the establishment of textile factories, may have hindered China's industrial development in the long run.
• Cixi's reliance on Western military assistance to suppress the Taiping rebellion could be criticized as undermining China's sovereignty and self-reliance.
• While Cixi did promote certain modernizations, her reforms were limited and did not fully transform China's traditional socio-economic structures.
• Cixi's approach to preserving traditional industries like silk weaving may have been more about maintaining social order and control rather than a balanced approach to modernization.
• The idea that Cixi was a progressive leader is contested by some scholars who point out that her rule was also marked by conservatism and resistance to change in many areas.
• Cixi's modernization efforts were largely focused on military and industrial advancements, with less emphasis on political reform, which some argue was necessary for true modernization.
• The claim that Cixi carefully addressed concerns about new technologies may be challenged by noting that her actions were often driven by political expediency rather than a balanced consideration of technological benefits and cultural values.

Cixi's strategy in dealing with foreign affairs and her dedication to safeguarding China's sovereignty, which included her responses to various global conflicts and disagreements.

She protected her nation's autonomy by resisting foreign domination and prudently agreed to the creation of tributary states when it was required.

Jung Chang portrays Cixi as skilled in handling international relations, employing pragmatism and determination to preserve authority over key areas deemed vital to the nation, while conceding some influence in less significant territories when other options were lacking. The author emphasizes that Cixi's main goal was to strengthen China sufficiently so it could withstand foreign pressures and not yield to the conditions set by other countries. In 1875, she launched a bold plan to reassert control over the expansive western region that had proclaimed its autonomy after the Taiping Rebellion, even though numerous advisors doubted the necessity of military expenditure in that area.

Jung Chang portrays Cixi's belief that if Xinjiang were to become independent, it would herald the further weakening of an empire already in decline, possibly leading to more territorial losses and a reduction in influence while other countries grew stronger. The author details how, in the past, China had relinquished territory, time and again, to aggressive foreign powers because it had been judged to lack strength. Should this trend continue, it will inevitably result in a diminishing vigor within the empire. Therefore, it is crucial to safeguard against external meddling, even if it means risking a prolonged struggle, a risk Cixi is willing to face.

Cixi launched a bold military campaign to retake Xinjiang, disregarding Earl Li's counsel to forsake the area, firmly believing in its vital significance to the empire's domain.

The author highlights Cixi's unwavering efforts to incorporate Xinjiang into the administrative framework of the Chinese nation, despite facing resistance from nearly all influential political leaders, some of whom were proponents of Western practices. Chang portrays Earl Li as a pragmatist, underscoring the imprudence of China's attempts to regain dominance over a vast and barren territory, given the risks associated with military engagement, the economic strain, and the minimal value of the territory in question. In this era, Earl Li advocated for a pragmatic approach that embraced the nation's limitations while later becoming a proponent of incorporating Western knowledge and techniques.

Chang depicts Cixi as resolutely asserting the critical importance of Xinjiang to China's territorial unity, arguing that its surrender could set a dangerous precedent and possibly incite further encroachments by foreign powers. Furthermore, Cixi highlighted the imperative for China to firmly establish its dominance, warning that if no action was taken, Ili, a vital area of the Xinjiang region held by Russia since 1871, might be indefinitely acknowledged as part of Russian lands. The author often highlights Cixi's unwavering dedication to preserving the cohesion of the imperial state.

Cixi conceded to Japan's annexation of the Liuqiu Islands but firmly resisted their attempts to seize Taiwan, which was an essential territory of the empire.

Chang portrays Cixi as flexible in her diplomatic engagements with nearby island nations, acknowledging their control by foreign entities when necessary, yet she consistently stood firm against ceding any portion of China's territorial integrity. Her reaction to Japan's efforts to take control of Taiwan during the 1870s, as well as its effective acquisition of the Liuqiu Islands, a state under Chinese suzerainty, serves as an example. Cixi refrained from defending the Liuqiu Islands, yet she dispatched a substantial military force to repel the Japanese troops that sought to take control of Taiwan.

The author details Cixi's approach to the island nations, reflecting the authentic strengths and constraints present within the imperial structure. The Liuqiu archipelago was devoid of the essential strategic resources needed for its defense. Cixi and her administration considered any intrusion into Taiwan, an integral part of China, to be completely unacceptable. Furthermore, the author emphasizes Cixi's sharp awareness of Japan's growing ambitions towards China, as demonstrated by its actions to take over Taiwan and its aggressive stance in Korea. Cixi argued that China's top priority should be to enhance its arsenal with advanced weapons to deter possible aggression from Japan.

She remained resolute in her stance against Russia regarding the Ili matter, choosing to reject the treaties labeled as 'unequal' and worked diligently to secure more favorable conditions.

Jung Chang details how Cixi refused to accept the Livadia Treaty, a pact negotiated by her representative Chonghou, which proposed the surrender of a portion of Xinjiang to Russia in return for their evacuation from Ili, after the victorious military operation to retake Xinjiang. Cixi persisted in her pursuit of a better agreement, despite the peril and rarity associated with rejecting an agreement with an international entity.

Despite the presence of 90,000 Russian soldiers in the contested region, Cixi stood her ground and did not yield. She sent the child of a reliable Han general, who had earned her trust earlier, to St. Petersburg as her fresh representative, carrying a treaty with explicitly stated terms that were not open to negotiation, allowing only for concessions that would not endanger China's well-being. Cixi skillfully combined military preparedness with shrewd diplomatic negotiations, which resulted in Russia's withdrawal. Diplomatic representatives from Western nations lauded her strategy as a major victory in foreign affairs, and the agreement she negotiated continues to be in effect even now.

Cixi astutely concluded that, given its own susceptibilities, Russia would not risk its diplomatic ties with China over Ili, since China stood ready to employ military action if required.

The author details Cixi's rejection of the Livadia Treaty, an agreement deemed 'unequal' and whose specifics had not been disclosed to the public. Exhaustion in China due to prolonged skirmishes with the Taiping and various rebel groups resulted in Russia gaining control of Ili. Her perception was astute in discerning that China's readiness to initiate conflict could compel Russia, which had been debilitated by a recent clash with Turkey, to consent to more advantageous conditions.

During a period of upheaval, Empress Dowager Cixi secured support from Prince Chun, an unlikely partner once noted for his opposition to her forward-looking changes in China. He joined forces with his partner's brother, signifying a remarkable shift in their alliance. Throughout the campaign, the author depicts Cixi as a person of unwavering resolve and skillful negotiation, characteristics that Prince Chun personally observed.

She utilized strategic diplomacy when interacting with Western nations, vigilantly safeguarding against their encroachment and prepared for any prolonged disputes that could emerge.

Chang emphasizes Cixi's adept handling of international diplomacy, always aiming to preserve tranquility but ready to undertake extended military campaigns if they were necessary to achieve her objectives. During the era leading up to the 1884-1885 skirmish with France, which resulted in Vietnam becoming part of French lands, the situation illustrates the international position of China. Cixi agreed to the establishment of Vietnam as a protectorate under French control, underscoring the necessity of defining a distinct boundary with China.

The author portrays the Empress Dowager's tactical expertise and her comprehensive direction throughout the negotiation process. France frequently tested China's preparedness for conflict by crossing the border during this period. Cixi commanded her armed forces to commence aggression, despite opposition from those who favored a gentler strategy. She clearly defined the goals for the negotiations when she directed Earl Li to commence discussions with France. Empress Dowager Cixi's strategy of preparing for hostilities while simultaneously seeking peaceful resolutions resulted in a favorable conclusion even though a clash took place.

Cixi remained resolute in her decision against offering compensation to France after the Tianjin Massacre, but she agreed to the punishment of several individuals convicted of murder to prevent a disastrous war.

Chang depicts the period after the Tianjin turmoil as one where Cixi adeptly managed foreign relations during a time marred by the killing of many Chinese Christians and a violent crowd assault that led to the death of twenty-one foreigners, including the French consul. France demanded harsh consequences in addition to significant reparations. The nation as a whole, along with the imperial court, was reluctant to acquiesce to the demands of Western countries, viewing such capitulations as indications of weakness. The strategic approach was meticulously devised by the Empress Dowager herself. She agreed to the capital punishment of several individuals convicted of homicide, demonstrating her administration's condemnation of these offenses, but she refused to offer any monetary reparation.

The writer emphasizes that the Empress Dowager's firm resistance to France's financial impositions was driven by her determination to end the cycle of foreign powers inflicting economic sanctions on China in response to domestic occurrences, which she found harmful and sought to terminate. Cixi held the belief that succumbing to the prevalent dread of foreign entities would be disastrously misinterpreted as capitulation to external pressures. The number of Boxers was inevitably going to increase. She responded to the chaos by implementing legislation that required the execution of individuals accountable for the unrest.

Other Perspectives

• Cixi's resistance to foreign domination may have been perceived as isolationist, potentially hindering China's modernization and international relations.
• The strategy of strengthening China internally to resist foreign pressures could be criticized for not fully embracing necessary reforms that would have allowed China to compete more effectively on the global stage.
• The military campaign to retake Xinjiang, while emphasizing sovereignty, could be viewed as an overextension of resources that might have been better allocated to domestic development or modernization efforts.
• While resisting Japan's attempts to seize Taiwan was crucial for maintaining territorial integrity, some might argue that Cixi's approach to international diplomacy was reactive rather than proactive, possibly missing opportunities for beneficial alliances or modernization assistance.
• Rejecting 'unequal' treaties with Russia and negotiating for better terms was a bold move, but it could be argued that it was a temporary solution that did not address the underlying imbalances in power and influence between China and Western nations.
• The perception that Russia would not risk diplomatic ties with China could be seen as an overestimation of China's leverage and a misunderstanding of the complexities of international politics at the time.
• Cixi's strategic diplomacy with Western nations might be criticized for being too cautious or conservative, potentially missing out on the benefits of greater openness and cooperation.
• The decision against offering compensation to France after the Tianjin Massacre, while preventing war, could be criticized for potentially damaging China's international reputation and relations with Western powers.

Cixi found herself embroiled in intricate political maneuvers and struggles for power, involving both the son she had adopted and an unsuccessful reform movement.

Empress Dowager Cixi leveraged Emperor Guangxu's reliance on Grand Tutor Weng, who had a profound apprehension of foreign powers, to assert her control over him, in addition to orchestrating a marriage he did not desire.

The author depicts how Cixi wielded her power over Emperor Guangxu, her adopted son, by meticulously guiding his education and orchestrating his marriage, notably by appointing a staunch conservative, Grand Tutor Weng, to be his principal instructor and compelling him to marry a bride he did not select. Cixi chose Longyu as her companion, assured of her loyalty and the slim chance that she would cause any trouble.

This method intensified the rift between Guangxu and Cixi, as noted by Chang. Consequently, Guangxu deprived the empress he disdained of any influence within the harem and further excluded her from their conjugal bed. Cixi's sway over Guangxu ensured that by molding his upbringing and personality, he would invariably support her selection of the empress.

Cixi astutely arranged for her niece to bolster her authority and ensure a compliant Empress, while at the same time deepening the disdain her adopted son harbored for her family members.

The author emphasizes that Cixi shrewdly strengthened her family's grip on authority by selecting her niece, Longyu, a direct relative from her sibling's lineage, to marry Emperor Guangxu. Chang portrays Cixi's tactic as a means to preserve her influence within the imperial court through the proximity of kin, while also ensuring the emperor would be joined with a consort who would consistently submit to his and her dominion. Cixi's decision to maintain her political clout was clear, as she continued to be involved in governance despite expectations that she would step back following her adopted son's marriage.

Jung Chang portrays Cixi's choice to designate Longyu as the emperor's consort, disregarding his personal wishes and the conventional power to choose his own spouse. She deduced this from the emperor's intrinsic inclination to adhere to proper conduct, a trait shaped by his innately reserved disposition. The author notes that Guangxu held a hidden bitterness because he could not openly voice his dissent. His disdain for Cixi intensified, fueled by his detestation for Longyu's father, a relative of Cixi who was widely mocked and scorned. Chang argues that Cixi crafted a strategy to ensure her influence would endure in shaping the emperor's choices.

She orchestrated the removal of Emperor Guangxu from power by capitalizing on the scandal surrounding Imperial Concubine Pearl's corruption and his associated blame.

Cixi exploited a conflict concerning Guangxu's favored concubine, Pearl, to subtly erode his authority. Chang emphasizes Cixi's dilemma: she recognizes the necessity of consolidating her power in comparison to her adopted son to ensure the continuity of the dynasty and her personal security, yet she deems it impractical to chastise him for his involvement in the plot against her.

The writer details Cixi's discovery through her vast informant network that Pearl was enriching herself by selling official titles, an unethical conduct which not only had the emperor's approval but his assistance in hiding, leading Cixi to force Pearl to confess her misdeeds. Chang details the process by which confessions were extracted from the favored eunuchs of the concubine, revealing their involvement in corrupt activities and their role in relaying messages between Pearl and individuals seeking to buy their way into official positions. Cixi leveraged this intelligence, convincing the ruler to allow her unfettered access to state documents, including classified military details relevant to the conflict involving Japan.

Cixi seized the opportunity presented by Pearl's confession to admonish the concubine in a manner that deftly exonerated the Emperor from any culpability.

Chang depicts how Cixi adeptly wielded her power, persuading Pearl, one of the emperor's consorts, to confess her misdeeds, which Cixi then used as justification to dethrone the reigning emperor. Cixi summoned the young concubine and, by exerting firm authority through her eunuchs, secured a detailed admission of Pearl's misdeeds, which were diligently documented with assistance from her informants.

The author notes that Cixi carefully orchestrated the event to preserve a semblance of authenticity. She ensured the exoneration of her adopted son by promulgating a shrewd edict that portrayed the emperor as the individual who revealed Pearl's malfeasance to Cixi, his Royal Father. The author also highlights how Cixi adeptly preserved her moral authority by discreetly reprimanding the emperor while openly disciplining the concubine and the eunuchs, effectively stifling potential dissent.

Cixi acted with determination to suppress the rebellion initiated by Wild Fox Kang, carefully controlled the release of information about the conspiracy, and dispensed justice to the conspirators with prudence.

Jung Chang delivers a detailed narrative of how Cixi effectively quelled the insurrection spearheaded by Wild Fox Kang. First, the author emphasizes her keen evaluation of the threat posed by the Wild Fox and his associates, as well as her adeptness in choosing reliable people to foil the plot, especially the essential support from General Yuan Shikai, which was pivotal in maintaining her authority.

The author highlights her adept maneuvering amidst the challenges posed by assassination attempts. The formal proclamation of the coup falsely asserted that the emperor was previously aware of and had given his support to the plot. Chang contends that it was crucial to uphold the semblance of Guangxu's sovereignty to safeguard the imperial family's dignity and avoid any implication of their involvement in an assassination plot against the emperor.

Cixi adeptly composed her public statements to imply that Kang's faction had plans to seize her along with the emperor.

Cixi swiftly and decisively suppressed the coup, capturing and executing the main plotters, simultaneously managing information dissemination to preserve her uncontested power. The author highlights the importance of her meticulous attention to the intricacies of the plot as a means to protect both her status and the kingdom. The schemers aimed not to directly assassinate Cixi but to covertly dethrone her, capture the emperor, and set up a rival center of authority.

The author emphasizes the significance of Cixi's intentional misrepresentation as a central strategy. Her adopted son participated in secret negotiations with Kang and played a role in the plot. Had this information been made public, there was a real risk that the dynasty itself could have collapsed, and the empire plunged into civil war.

She strategically utilized her charisma to diminish international criticism and to strengthen loyalty among her advisors, thus reinforcing her power and securing the stability of her position.

Cixi skillfully improved her standing after the turmoil associated with Wild Fox Kang, working tirelessly to regain the confidence of those who had lost faith due to her reliance on the Boxers in the conflict with international powers. Strengthening the country's unity was crucial for resisting possible invasions from abroad in the future.

The writer highlights how Cixi adeptly harnessed her charm to captivate international envoys, hosting opulent events that welcomed their relatives, during which she bestowed presents generously and showered her visitors with copious signs of affection and commendation. Cixi fostered allegiance among influential individuals and dignitaries through offering assistance and empathy, bestowing presents, and encouraging marriages within key families to maintain her power.

Cixi charmed the partners of foreign envoys by bestowing gifts and praise upon them at a lavish event she orchestrated for representatives from multiple nations.

In December 1898, Cixi organized a gathering for the wives of foreign diplomats, carefully orchestrating the event to present herself as a benevolent and forward-thinking ruler, with the goal of diminishing global criticism of her rule. She made efforts to mend the damage that resulted from her support for the Boxer Uprising. The writer depicts how Cixi demonstrated her newfound appreciation by showering foreign women with extravagant presents and abundant commendations.

The author notes that Cixi's strategy was met with significant success. The occurrence left a profound impression on the women from around the world, presenting a clear divergence from the portrayal of Cixi commonly seen in media and in the views held by international diplomats about China. Chang observes that although it was a lapse in manners when a visitor asked for Cixi's bowl, it was also an indirect recognition of Chinese traditions.

Practical Tips

• You can analyze the power dynamics in your workplace by mapping out the relationships and dependencies between colleagues and superiors. Start by creating a diagram that shows who relies on whom for information, support, or decision-making. This will help you understand how influence flows and where you might have leverage or need to build stronger alliances.
• Enhance your negotiation skills by practicing strategic empathy in low-stakes situations, like with family or friends. Try to understand their motivations and desires deeply before proposing solutions or compromises. This practice will prepare you to navigate more complex negotiations in your professional life by anticipating others' reactions and countermoves.
• Develop your personal influence by volunteering for roles that require you to communicate and collaborate with a diverse group of people. This could be in a community organization or a cross-departmental project at work. Focus on using your charisma to build relationships and consensus, which can mirror the way historical figures like Cixi built loyalty and diminished criticism.

Empress Dowager Cixi played a pivotal role in propelling China towards an era of modernization.

She left China with a heritage of updated establishments and systems, along with a populace that enjoyed enhanced opportunities for learning, coupled with a burgeoning middle class.

Cixi's legacy is marked by its intricacy and extensive scope of impact. The account emphasizes the significant changes initiated by her, underscoring the deep-seated reforms she catalyzed, and underscores her unique role as the central architect of progress and the decisive figure in China's transition to a republic.

During her four-decade tenure, China experienced consistent advancement in its infrastructure through a series of bold and occasionally controversial initiatives, which were undertaken with unwavering determination and energy. Chang depicts Cixi as a pragmatic ruler who championed the creation of China's first modern factory, a shipyard in Fuzhou focused on constructing gunboats, thus enhancing China's naval strength to be on par with various nations in the West. After French forces demolished the shipyard in 1884, she meticulously directed its rebuilding, which resulted in the creation of more shipyards at different harbors. The successful implementation of these modernization initiatives established a foundation that facilitated the growth of further industries.

The author details how Cixi championed a radical reform of the outdated educational system, which had been solely focused on Chinese Classics, to establish schools influenced by Western educational practices, even though she herself had not benefited from formal education. She championed reforms that established the groundwork for modern education, nurturing a setting that was favorable for the development of diverse new professional trajectories. Creating a Ministry of Commerce was a crucial step toward confronting the deep-seated cultural disdain for business activities.

Cixi's bold promotion of modern industries such as coal mining and railways, despite widespread opposition, and her introduction of the first modern factory (for ship-building).

The author provides multiple examples of Cixi's proactive backing for the progression of contemporary industrial sectors, even when confronted with considerable doubt and opposition. Chang illustrates that during the early 1860s, the initial contemporary shipyard in Fuzhou came into existence, supported by the Empress Dowager Cixi, even though there was a common consensus that these types of projects were not in China's best interests. Empress Dowager Cixi supported the initiation of coal extraction and the creation of telegraph networks, despite worries that these technological progresses could diminish the scenic charm of the environment. Cixi was also aware of the benefits that these sectors provided to Shanghai and the whole country, consistently advocating for the development of a widespread railway system throughout the nation.

Chang emphasizes Cixi's pragmatism, showing that she overcame opposition to advancement by emphasizing the importance of adopting Western technological skills to maintain parity and deter other countries from imposing unfair treaties by force. The writer emphasizes her leadership and advocacy for progress within a society that typically resisted innovation.

Cixi not only ended the harsh ancient punishment system but also pioneered the implementation of more compassionate conditions for prisoners and created a judicial structure inspired by practices from the West.

The book by Jung Chang documents the comprehensive transformation of the legal system that Cixi undertook, which led to the creation of modern legal codes and a judiciary influenced by Western examples, and the discontinuation of outdated forms of punishment and execution methods. In 1902, she initiated the formation of a committee dedicated to overhauling the judicial system, which included a mandate to reassess existing laws for consistency with globally recognized norms. She aimed to guide a self-sufficient and isolated China into a new period of modernity, aligning her decrees with such aspirations.

The author details her significant achievements, such as starting a ban on torture during interrogations except in exceptional cases, and a thorough reform of the penal system, particularly ending the notorious execution practice referred to as 'death by a thousand cuts' in preference for the execution method of shooting, which is more in line with Western practices. Legal education institutions were established in the city, and the conditions of imprisonment were improved, among other forward-thinking reforms.

Other Perspectives

• While Cixi did initiate reforms, some historians argue that her efforts were too little and too late to effectively counter the internal and external challenges facing China.
• Cixi's role in modernization is often debated, with some suggesting that her conservative tendencies hindered more radical and necessary reforms.
• The growth of a middle class and enhanced learning opportunities were not uniformly experienced across China and were largely limited to urban areas.
• Some of Cixi's initiatives, such as the Self-Strengthening Movement, had limited success and did not fundamentally alter China's technological and industrial capabilities to the extent necessary to compete with Western powers.
• Cixi's support for modern industries was not always consistent and was sometimes driven by the need to respond to immediate crises rather than a coherent long-term strategy for industrialization.
• The establishment of a Ministry of Commerce and other reforms were not fully effective in transforming China's economy or in eliminating the cultural disdain for business.
• Cixi's reforms of the judicial system, while progressive, were not fully implemented and did not immediately lead to a fair and modern legal system.
• The banning of torture and the end of outdated execution methods, while significant, did not necessarily translate into a more humane or just legal system overall.
• Cixi's centralization of power and resistance to political reforms may have contributed to the eventual downfall of the Qing Dynasty and the establishment of the Republic of China.