PDF Summary:Dress Codes, by Richard Thompson Ford

In Dress Codes, Richard Thompson Ford delves into the complex history of fashion and clothing's role in defining status, identity, and social hierarchies. Drawing parallels between historical sumptuary laws and modern brand protection measures, Ford examines how clothing serves as a vehicle for projecting power, wealth, individuality, and group belonging.

Ford explores the evolution of fashion norms, from reinforcing racial oppression to reflecting religious values and gender roles. He unpacks how the "Great Masculine Renunciation" of the late 1700s paved the way for modern business attire as a symbol of democratic ideals and meritocracy. Throughout, Ford highlights the intricate connections between clothing, identity, and societal structures.

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Practical Tips

• Create a small accessory or item that implies status, such as a fake invitation or membership card, to subtly display when entering exclusive venues. This doesn't mean forging documents but rather having something that looks official and could be mistaken for a sign of privilege, like a tasteful, personalized business card holder that you casually show while talking to the staff.
• Host a themed social gathering where attire is inspired by different art periods. Invite friends to dress in a way that represents their favorite art period, such as Renaissance, Impressionism, or Modernism. This encourages guests to explore art history, express their tastes through fashion, and engage in discussions about the influence of art on personal style, mirroring the scenario where Ford's outfit sparked a conversation about art.

Other Perspectives

• The enforcement of a dress code could be argued to reflect the restaurant's branding and marketing strategy aimed at attracting a particular clientele, rather than an explicit attempt to create or enforce social stratification.
• It could be argued that the presence of loaner jackets and ties allows for spontaneous dining decisions, where patrons who did not plan to dine at a high-end establishment can still enjoy the experience without prior preparation.
• The practice of lending attire in restaurants is a temporary measure for the duration of a meal, whereas sumptuary laws imposed long-term restrictions on personal attire and consumption.
• The democratization of fashion through the availability of stylish and well-tailored clothing at various price points means that these features are no longer reliable indicators of one's socioeconomic status.

Silicon Valley's Inverted Elitism: Asserting Importance Through Informal Clothing

Ford uses the case of Marc Zuckerberg–tech icon and CEO of Facebook (later, Meta)–to show how new, “countercultural” dress codes now assert status through the seemingly unassuming modesty of casual sportswear and how this, the ultimate expression of the Great Masculine Renunciation, has been made into a modern style of meritocratic assertion that reinforces inequalities of class, race, and sex while pretending to be indifferent to them.

Just as an ostentatious display of wealth became a sign of vulgarity in the nineteenth century, today, those with the greatest social status strive to appear indifferent to prestige, seeking to display that indifference through their clothing and mannerisms. This can take many forms, including the deliberately ragged and worn clothing of some professors and the studiedly proletarian garb favored by people in the US heartland. But, Ford insists, the most powerful and consequential way to communicate understated sophistication now is through the dressed-down, faux-functional casual clothing of Silicon Valley, which he calls "upended snobbery." Here, comfort and function are pretense, not practicality, and the underlying ethos, instead of promoting equality, is that those who choose to work on challenging, ambitious projects and who aren’t swayed by shallow concerns for appearance have thereby distinguished themselves—they, and only they, are suitable to manage the destiny of humanity, whether the internet's influence on democracy or the dangers of gene editing or the creation of an artificial intelligence so powerful it could end all life as we know it. This has a certain charm, but there is also a hypocrisy: if indifference to fashion signifies superior intellectual and moral values, then isn’t the person wearing a suit—or the woman in high heels—demonstrating her superficiality by even noticing her attire?

Ford explains how clothing communicates this paradoxical elitism. For instance, rather than custom-fitted businesswear and designer ties, Silicon Valley favors Patagonia vests, T-shirts with vaguely ironic or childish patterns, sweatshirts with hoods, or (for the truly daring) Hawaiian shirts. This carefully chosen attire often costs more than conventional businesswear, and its unassuming appearance only makes sense due to its context and associations. For instance, a Patagonia fleece vest signifies athleticism, wealth, and an indifference to style, in large part because of the high price of Patagonia clothing and because the brand is associated with wilderness adventures–activities typically reserved for the affluent. Similarly, a hoodie signals both studied disdain for traditional standards of professional dress and an expression of childlike innocence and unselfconscious single-minded focus. Informal attire can be interpreted in a variety of ways, depending on the context and its wearer. A hoodie is a sign of criminality for a Black man but an expression of childlike innocence for a white CEO; a midriff top may look cute on a white celebrity, but is condemned as a sign of sexual promiscuity on a Black woman; a pair of high heels suggests sophistication and power when sported by a United States senator, but looks trashy or desperate on a waitress at a casino; the same sports jersey marks a young gang member as a dangerous member of a rival gang, signals an adolescent’s striving for social acceptance among his peers, and displays a middle-aged family man’s harmless hometown pride.

Context

• Patagonia is a brand known for its commitment to environmental sustainability and high-quality outdoor gear. The vests are often associated with a lifestyle that values outdoor adventure and environmental consciousness, appealing to those who want to project an image of being eco-friendly and active.

Other Perspectives

• The choice of casual sportswear could be driven by the influence of tech industry leaders on popular culture, rather than a deliberate attempt to use clothing as a means of asserting status.
• Casual dress codes might actually democratize workplace culture by removing the financial barrier of purchasing expensive formal wear, potentially making it easier for individuals from lower socioeconomic backgrounds to fit in.
• The casual attire could be a practical response to the climate of the region, where temperatures and weather conditions favor lighter, more breathable clothing.
• The ability to work on ambitious projects does not necessarily equate to the suitability to manage humanity's destiny, as this requires a broader set of skills including ethical judgment, empathy, and a deep understanding of diverse human experiences.
• The cost of conventional businesswear can vary widely, with high-end designer suits and accessories often far exceeding the price of casual Silicon Valley attire, suggesting that the most expensive business attire still outprices Silicon Valley's casual wear.
• This perspective might not account for the possibility that some people deliberately use informal attire to challenge or subvert the typical interpretations associated with their identity or context.

Clothing and Identity's Impact on Social Mobility

Self-Fashioning and Individualism

Ford argues that the birth of fashion coincided with the rise of the individual, as a new sensibility emerged in the late medieval and Renaissance periods, in which people came to see themselves as individuals first and foremost, and their group identity as a secondary consequence rather than as the basis of their unique disposition. This new approach to self-conception, which we take for granted today, created a need for new ways of thinking about and representing rank, gender, influence, and character.

Fashion Emerges as a Means to Express Individuality, Moving Beyond Traditional Roles

Ford uses "fashion" in this book to mean apparel that conveys individual personality—in essence a rejection of the traditional social roles that the clothing of the past reflected. In past eras, social rank, religious faith, and sex determined, within narrow bounds, what someone wore, the meaning of which was similarly limited: expensive fabrics and adornments signified high status and wealth; religious attire expressed devotion to piety and renunciation of worldly things; gendered attire announced the wearer's gender, and status within a patriarchal system, whether married or single, chaste or immodestly available and attractive. Ford's concept of fashion both rejects that traditional symbolism and also repurposes the old symbolism into something new and more varied.

Practical Tips

• Create a personal style mood board to visualize your unique fashion sense. Start by collecting images, colors, textures, and patterns that resonate with you, regardless of current trends. This can be done using a physical board or a digital platform like Pinterest. By doing this, you'll have a visual representation of your individual style that can guide your clothing choices, helping you to express your personality rather than conforming to traditional social roles.
• You can remix your wardrobe by pairing items that traditionally wouldn't go together to create a new fashion statement. Start by taking a classic piece, like a tailored blazer, and wear it with something unexpected, such as athletic shorts or a graphic tee from a different cultural context. This not only gives new life to both items but also challenges the conventional symbolism attached to them.

Tailoring as a Technical Innovation for Unique Clothing

The author argues that tailored clothing enabled a novel type of fashion. Until the 1300s, people dressed in draped garb. Ford provides the examples of the Roman toga and the robes and gowns people wore throughout medieval Europe. Tailoring involved a different approach to attire: instead of merely hanging fabric over the body to obscure its natural contours, tailored clothing allowed for form-fitting elements that accentuated the body. Moreover, tailoring enabled clothing with distinct articulated parts, for legs, arms, and torso instead of one piece of fabric that enveloped the individual in unvarying folds. This technical advance allowed for the creation of a different type of sartorial symbolism that emphasized the wearer's uniqueness: garments that were individualized, more modern, and more easily adaptable to individual creativity and self-fashioning.

Context

• The development of new tools and techniques, such as the invention of the sewing needle and the use of scissors, facilitated the precise cutting and sewing required for tailored garments.
• The Roman toga, for example, was not just a piece of clothing but a symbol of Roman citizenship and status. Only free Roman men could wear togas, and different styles or colors indicated different ranks or roles within society.
• Tailoring involves precise measurements and cutting patterns to fit the body's shape, using darts, seams, and pleats to create a snug fit. This requires skill and understanding of fabric behavior.
• Before tailoring, most clothing was made from large pieces of fabric that were draped and pinned, such as tunics or togas. This method was less efficient in terms of fabric use and did not allow for much movement or flexibility.
• As tailoring spread across different cultures, it led to a fusion of styles and techniques, enriching global fashion and allowing for cross-cultural influences in clothing design.

How Novels and Sartorial Self-Fashioning Evolved

Ford compares the evolution of fashion with the development of literature, arguing that both reflect broader social and cultural changes in which individuality supplanted the traditional social roles and status hierarchies of past eras. Until the close of the medieval and Renaissance periods, literature typically took the form of an epic, which chronicled the historically significant acts of heroes and heroines who were defined by their status and their role in weighty historical matters. The protagonists of epic literature are of interest, not because of their internal psychology, but because they represent and act out important social roles, such as the monarch, warrior, or sage. Ford uses the example of Odysseus, whose cleverness allowed him to evade the sirens, Achilles, who let his pride overcome his better judgment, and Lancelot, whose desire for Guinevere ultimately brought down Camelot. Ford argues that starting in the 1300s, and maturing over the 1600s and 1700s, the novel replaced epic narratives. Novels explore the internal psychology of everyday life and concern themselves with the mundane interactions of people who are not defined—and do not define themselves—by their position in society.

Context

• A legendary knight of the Round Table in Arthurian legend, Lancelot is renowned for his martial prowess and his illicit love affair with Queen Guinevere. His actions contribute to the downfall of King Arthur's kingdom, Camelot. Lancelot's story highlights themes of chivalry, loyalty, and betrayal within the epic tradition.

Other Perspectives

• The evolution of literature, especially the novel, might be seen as a response to increasing literacy and changes in the publishing industry, factors that do not have clear parallels in the evolution of fashion.
• Fashion and literature can also serve to reinforce existing social structures and norms, rather than reflecting change, by promoting and perpetuating traditional or conservative values.
• In some societies, traditional social roles and status hierarchies have proven resilient and continue to coexist with the concept of individuality.
• The statement might oversimplify the diversity of medieval and Renaissance literature by implying that epics were the dominant or exclusive form, which is not accurate.
• While protagonists in epic literature often represented important social roles, they were sometimes more complex and could also embody personal virtues, flaws, or moral lessons that transcended their social roles.
• The emotional depth and personal struggles of characters like Achilles, whose rage and grief drive the plot of the "Iliad," indicate that internal psychology is a critical element even in ancient epics.
• Epic narratives continued to be written and enjoyed after the 1300s, suggesting that they were not entirely replaced by novels but rather supplemented by the new form.
• Some novels, especially those belonging to the modernist and postmodernist traditions, intentionally eschew a deep exploration of character psychology in favor of experimental narrative techniques or to highlight the artifice of storytelling.
• The focus on mundane interactions does not preclude the influence of societal positions on the narrative; characters' decisions and interactions are often shaped by the societal structures they navigate, even in novels centered on everyday life.

The Rise of "Elegance"

Ford explains how the Great Male Renunciation introduced a novel form of prestige indicator based on refinement. This new standard of “elegance” involved the seemingly effortless and nonchalant ability to assemble a wardrobe suitable to every occasion and to don it with the casual confidence that could only come from wealth and prolonged exposure to elite social circles. This form of conspicuous understatement was particularly crucial to men, whose traditional prerogative to luxury and display had been undermined by new political values, economic mobility, and changing standards of beauty. But women also faced the challenges of a new emphasis on elegance in dress, as they sought to meet the strictures of social, economic, political, religious, and sexual expectations that were both demanding and confusing. As a result, the rules of attire grew increasingly elaborate during the era of understated elegance. To dress well was to understand a set of complicated rules governing what, how, and when to wear everything down to the smallest details of fit, tailoring, color, texture, quality, and, above all, taste that could not be taught but had to be learned through a lifetime's worth of exposure to the appropriate individuals, whether parents, teachers, or peers.

Dress Code Violations Become Prestige Indicators Requiring Greater Knowledge

Ford explains how the change from overt lavishness to refined elegance enabled new possibilities for rules of dress. Since the new indicators of status were harder for the merely affluent to imitate or copy, they allowed for the development of a subtle class-based hierarchy. During the 1700s and 1800s, etiquette manuals replaced formal laws regulating spending as a method for controlling and explaining clothing's societal implications. Ford uses the example of high heels to demonstrate how a transgression of modern elegance norms became a potent status symbol. In the 1600s, high-ranking men like King Louis XIV wore high-heeled shoes, tinted crimson. During the 1700s and 1800s, high-heeled shoes became associated with female decorativeness—a link that endures in today's red-soled Louboutin shoe, marketed as a symbol of status to affluent women. A woman's red heels could be considered the modern-day version of the shoes with crimson soles worn by Louis XIV.

Other Perspectives

• Refined elegance may not necessarily lead to new rules of dress but rather a reinterpretation or subtle modification of existing ones.
• While new indicators of status may have been harder to imitate, this does not necessarily mean that they created a more subtle class-based hierarchy; it could be argued that the hierarchy remained overt through other means, such as property ownership or titles.
• Etiquette manuals may have been less effective than formal laws in regulating spending because they relied on social pressure rather than legal enforcement.
• The potency of a status symbol is not solely determined by its deviation from norms; it can also be influenced by factors such as scarcity, brand reputation, historical significance, and media portrayal.
• The exclusivity of red-soled Louboutin shoes as a status symbol is challenged by the availability of knock-offs and replicas, which can blur the lines of perceived affluence and accessibility.
• While red heels today may symbolize status, they do not carry the same exclusive royal authority that King Louis XIV's crimson-soled shoes did, as high heels are widely accessible and not limited to a ruling elite.

Brummell's Understated Perfection Shows Superior Aesthetic Insight

Ford describes how George Bryan Brummell, whose name is associated with men's fashion awareness, epitomized this new standard of elegance. Brummell, who was a notorious dandy and friend of the then-Welsh Prince (later George IV), rejected the aristocracy's extravagant dress by meticulously crafting a modern, elegant look. Brummell’s wardrobe wasn't cheap or simple–according to his contemporaries, he spent hundreds of pounds each year to maintain his clothing. But, Ford insists, Brummell’s distinction was not in what he wore, but in how he wore his clothes. He donned uncomplicated outfits made from high-quality materials, with meticulous craftsmanship ensuring they always fit perfectly and were accessorized. To complete the effect, he carefully cultivated the impression that he had not spent any time on his appearance, embracing sprezzatura–the art of nonchalant perfection described by Baldassare Castiglione in the early 1500s in The Book of the Courtier. Brummell’s genius was to use understated refinement in the service of elitism: only those with ample time and resources and casual familiarity with elite social settings would have the time, money, and know-how to correctly copy the style's details, which appear simple. Ford contrasts the sprezzatura of Brummell to the labored and ultimately unconvincing attire of Donald Trump, whose overly long neckties, reportedly kept from unraveling by carefully concealed scotch tape, betrayed not a casual disdain for fashion, but a deep and ultimately frustrated desire to look impressive.

Practical Tips

• Initiate a 'wardrobe audit' every season to assess and update your clothing collection. During the audit, remove items that no longer fit your standard of elegance, repair pieces that need attention, and list what new items you need to acquire. This keeps your wardrobe fresh and in line with the evolving standards of men's fashion.
• Develop a personal uniform for everyday wear. Choose a simple, versatile outfit template that suits your style and needs, such as a tailored blazer, a well-fitted pair of trousers, and a crisp shirt. Having a go-to outfit formula saves time, reduces stress, and ensures you maintain a consistent, put-together appearance.
• Practice nonchalant conversation techniques to enhance your social sprezzatura. Start by listening more than you speak, giving others the spotlight while subtly guiding the conversation with insightful questions. This approach can make you appear confident and in control without seeming overbearing. Try this at your next social event, focusing on being present in the conversation without dominating it.
• Host a small, exclusive dinner party with a simple yet elegant theme. This allows you to practice understated refinement in a social setting. Use a neutral color palette for your decor, serve a menu of classic dishes with a gourmet twist, and curate a guest list that reflects a selective yet diverse mix of individuals.
• Develop a keen eye for detail by practicing the art of observation in social settings. Attend public events, such as art galleries, upscale markets, or fashion shows, and take note of the subtle style choices people make. Pay attention to accessories, color combinations, and fabric textures. This practice will help you discern the nuances of elite style and incorporate similar details into your wardrobe.

Etiquette Treatises on Class Distinction in an Age of Democracy

In the 1800s, according to Ford, etiquette was key to maintaining one's societal standing. The elaborate dress codes of old-regime aristocratic society, which defined the correct attire for a host of social occasions and personal circumstances, were now available not just to high society, but also—in theory—to literate people. Ford explains how nineteenth-century Europeans and Americans alike relied on etiquette treatises to learn what clothing and hairstyles were appropriate for each of the many situations they encountered in daily life, whether a breakfast ensemble or outfit for an afternoon promenade; a somber outfit suitable for mourning the departed, or a shimmering gown for attending the opera; what to wear to a christening or marriage ceremony; clothes for the seashore or the mountains; a demure but stylish outfit for worship in the sanctuary or a rakishly correct casualwear ensemble for a drink at the club or tea at the summer home of a prestigious acquaintance.

Ford argues that this new code of manners for the masses didn't democratize fashion; it enforced social hierarchies in a different manner. Many of the rituals and norms of everyday life, such as those concerning dining, beverages, and especially clothing, became tests of social proficiency that were only meaningful to those who had already passed. Similar to the affluent VIP browsing in Hermes while clad in track pants and sandals, or the Stanford professor commuting on a rusted bike to teach a course on consumption ethics, someone who could dress well while appearing deliberately unconcerned with fashion demonstrated the elusive self-confidence associated with inherited privilege. Etiquette established a new form of sartorial status symbol: seemingly effortless elegance premised on knowing the right time, the right place, and of course, the right way to transgress against the rules.

Other Perspectives

• The importance of etiquette could vary depending on the region and culture; in some societies, other values such as community contribution or military prowess might have been more influential in determining societal standing.
• Etiquette treatises might have been more aspirational than practical, representing an idealized version of society rather than the reality of how people dressed for various occasions.
• The use of etiquette guides to determine clothing choices assumes a level of literacy and interest in fashion that may not have been universal, indicating that some individuals might have made clothing choices based on practicality or personal taste rather than strict adherence to prescribed etiquette.
• The availability of etiquette treatises to a broader audience could have reinforced class distinctions by highlighting the differences between those who could afford to follow the guidelines and those who could not.
• The notion of "effortless elegance" as a marker of inherited privilege overlooks the possibility that individuals from various backgrounds could achieve and display such confidence without it being tied to social class.
• The emphasis on social proficiency might overlook the role of economic accessibility, where individuals may not participate in certain rituals or adhere to norms due to financial constraints rather than a lack of social knowledge or skill.
• The concept of dressing well is subjective and culturally relative, meaning that what is considered "well-dressed" in one society or social group may not hold the same connotations in another, thus the link between dressing well and demonstrating self-confidence or privilege may not be universally applicable.
• The idea that transgressing rules is a sign of status can be seen as perpetuating elitism, suggesting that only those with certain privileges can afford to break societal norms without consequence.

Fashion and Racial Oppression

African American Slaves' Use of European Attire to Challenge White Supremacy

Ford provides a detailed account of how African Americans, first as slaves and later, after Emancipation, as citizens living under the indignities of Jim Crow, used a variety of fashion strategies to assert their dignity and personal pride in the face of a comprehensive and unapologetically racist society. According to Ford, enslaved Black individuals were often highly fashion-conscious. Because some slave owners allowed their charges to earn extra money or purchase clothing with their own resources, certain enslaved individuals acquired expensive European fashions, which they used to impress their peers or potential partners. Slaves also valued practical clothing, which they could exchange or sell during their escape to support themselves. Indeed, Ford explains, many slaves stole attire from their masters before escaping bondage and thoughtfully chose the clothes they'd bring, reflecting both practical needs and an aspiration to freedom. For instance, in 1774, “Bacchus,” a Virginia slave, fled the plantation with two fashionable white summer coats, a pair of blue velvet breeches, several shirts and vests, silk stockings and polished shoes, silver buckles, and last but not least, his prize possession—a hat styled like the "Macaroni" figure, the eighteenth-century equivalent of a top hat, which one might see today at Royal Ascot. According to Ford, besides their obvious practical purposes, these garments also signified liberation and upward mobility for the runaway slave, allowing him to pass for a free man or, as his master worried, to travel to England, where, following the precedent set by the famous James Somerset case, he could request emancipation.

Practical Tips

• You can express your heritage through fashion by incorporating traditional African patterns or fabrics into your everyday wardrobe. This could mean wearing a scarf, tie, or accessory that features a design significant to African culture. By doing so, you're not only making a personal style statement but also honoring the resilience and creativity of those who used clothing as a form of self-expression under oppression.
• Learn basic sewing and repair skills to maintain the practicality and longevity of your clothing. Being able to mend a tear or replace a button can extend the life of a garment significantly, making it more valuable in the long run. Start with simple tutorials online and practice on old clothes you don't wear anymore. This skill can save you money and make your clothing more adaptable to different situations.
• Write a short story from the perspective of an individual planning their escape: This exercise can help you empathize with the strategic thinking and emotional turmoil involved in such a decision. Focus on the details of how they would acquire the necessary attire, the risks involved, and the symbolic meaning of wearing their master's clothes as they seek freedom. This creative writing endeavor allows you to explore the psychological and practical aspects of the escape in a personal and imaginative way.
• Design a personal accessory, like a pin or bracelet, that symbolizes your journey towards liberation or a goal you've achieved. Wearing this accessory can serve as a daily reminder of your progress and aspirations, much like the symbolic attire of the past, and can inspire conversations with others about the importance of personal milestones.

Zoot Suit: Aspirations of Disconnected Immigrant Children

Ford explains how the mid-twentieth-century Mexican Americans who adopted the zoot suit were, in many ways, an example of the same status assertion that led commoners of medieval and early modern periods to adopt the fashions of their social betters. Like those earlier social upstarts, zoot suiters wanted to show they had as much success and style as those above them socially. But, because of the social circumstances from which the zoot suiters emerged—racism, social marginalization, economic inequality, and most importantly, cultural alienation—their clothing aspirations also had a distinctly rebellious and even confrontational edge, refusing the hypocrisy of a dominant culture that promised equality but reserved its rewards to those "to the manor born." Just as the Black slaves who adopted the styles of European gentry during the 1700s did so both to demonstrate affluence and to mock conventional social expectations, the pachucos of Los Angeles reveled in a sartorial defiance that deliberately clashed with the sober, buttoned-up look that defined America’s mid-century professional middle class. The zoot suit, with its long, wide jacket, large lapels, and voluminous, draped trousers, deliberately violated the conventions of male dress that had been in place since the Great Masculine Renunciation in the 1700s. For the pachuco, this fashion choice signaled defiance against the principles of a dominant culture that they saw as both dishonest and racist.

Practical Tips

• Document your milestones with a visual representation that you can display in your personal space. This could be a custom piece of art or a photo collage that includes symbols of your accomplishments, like a graduation cap for finishing a degree or a model of a car you bought after reaching a financial goal. Seeing this daily reinforces your status to yourself and any guests.
• Use social media to craft an image that showcases your success and style. Create content that highlights your achievements, hobbies, or lifestyle in a way that resonates with the success you aspire to emulate. For instance, if you're passionate about art, share your gallery visits or artwork with insightful commentary that positions you as a knowledgeable enthusiast.
• Design a custom piece of clothing or accessory that incorporates elements of historical rebellious fashion, like the zoot suit, to modernize the concept. You could sketch a design that blends the bold lines of a zoot suit with contemporary streetwear, then have it made by a local tailor or through an online service that offers custom clothing.
• Engage in role-reversal exercises with friends or family where you temporarily adopt each other's hobbies or interests that are outside your usual preferences. This can broaden your perspective and foster empathy, as well as demonstrate how stepping out of one's comfort zone can challenge the status quo. If you typically enjoy mainstream movies, try watching independent films recommended by a friend and discuss the different values and messages conveyed through these mediums.

Debate On Appropriate Attire for Black Racial Justice Activism

Ford demonstrates how the fight for racial justice during the latter part of the twentieth century and the beginning of the twenty-first led to diverse clothing norms that reflected and contributed to debate about the nature and goals of those struggles. The central point of contention was whether African Americans should dress “respectably,” seeking to meet mainstream white-dominated standards of appearance, or should instead deliberately challenge those standards, insisting on being regarded with esteem and honor while displaying a distinctly Black aesthetic.

During the initial phase of the civil rights era, activists typically donned business or church attire—what Ford calls “Sunday best”—to challenge the stereotypes of ignorance and sloth, which racist white people used to justify racial hierarchy. This respectability strategy, which aimed to visually refute racist stereotypes, was more than a simple social tactic designed to win the approval of whites. Many civil rights activists who embraced the idea of respectability also adopted a bourgeois sensibility that was critical of casual attire and sloppy grooming and mannerisms.

However, a later wave of racial justice campaigners questioned this strategy. In the 1960s, the members of the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee and groups supporting Black Power rejected the formal standards of attire of the older civil rights movement. The SNCC organizers often adopted working-class attire as they sought to organize and connect with poor Black tenant farmers and agricultural laborers, in the way that Saul Alinsky described community organizing. Similarly, groups supporting Black Power wore the chic, vaguely militaristic black turtlenecks and leather jackets of urban bohemians; the Afrocentric robes of Pan-Africanist romanticism, or even, following earlier generations of racial justice activists, advocated for actually returning to Africa. Each of these styles, in one way or another, rejected the respectability of the earlier, conventional movement for civil rights.

This repudiation of bourgeois decorum straddled a delicate boundary between a pressing condemnation of lifeless consumerism and a condescending nostalgia for the supposed innocence and freedom of poverty. Moreover, in the late 1960s, as African American activists challenged the social standards of the mainstream, some white commentators and artists sought to share in the glamour of Black liberationism, appropriating the distinctive styles of civil rights activism to serve entertainment, fashion, and self-aggrandizement. Tom Wolfe introduced the phrase "radical chic" to describe this phenomenon, implying that many of the social transformations of the period were shallowly motivated fads, no different than the latest dance craze or music fad. Others who shared this view, such as fashion historian Anne Hollander, worried that even when the symbolic meaning of attire was valid, the visual distraction of novel and unfamiliar fashions could undermine the message: a person dressed in a hijab and tailored outfit might come across as a sexy throwback to an earlier, more repressive age rather than as a confident and stylish expression of both faith and modern sensibility. And, of course, many of the ideals of “authenticity” expressed in fashionable attire were as contrived as the norms of social refinement that they rejected: the proletarian fashion worn by a student organizer who hadn't toiled in a field since tending a backyard garden as a child might look to others like a mocking imitation of poverty.

Practical Tips

• Create a personal blog or vlog series documenting your journey of using fashion as a tool for racial justice activism. Share insights on how different outfits influence your interactions during activist events, community meetings, or even casual encounters. This could serve as a reflective practice for you and provide a platform for discussion and connection with others interested in the intersection of fashion and activism.
• Partner with local clothing stores to offer discounts or donations to individuals attending job interviews or important community events who may benefit from presenting themselves in a way that challenges stereotypes. This initiative could help empower others to make a statement and feel confident in crucial social situations.
• You can elevate your professional image by adopting a 'dress for success' approach in your daily attire. Start by assessing your wardrobe and identifying pieces that are well-tailored and present a polished look. Replace casual or worn-out items with more formal options that reflect a put-together appearance. For example, swap out jeans for slacks or a skirt, and choose blouses or shirts over t-shirts. This change can influence how you're perceived in both your professional and personal circles, potentially opening doors to new opportunities.
• You can express your personal values through your fashion choices by selecting clothing that aligns with the causes you support. For instance, if you're passionate about environmental sustainability, you might opt for clothes made from organic or recycled materials. This not only makes a statement about your values but also contributes to the demand for sustainable fashion.
• Implement a personal policy of 'conscious gifting' to combat lifeless consumerism, where you give experiences or handmade gifts instead of store-bought items. This could include offering to teach a skill you possess, like cooking a special dish, or creating a personalized piece of art. By doing so, you're not only providing a more meaningful gift but also stepping away from the cycle of purchasing and promoting creativity and personal connection.
• Create a personal policy for responsible consumption of media and art that involves researching the background of the content you consume. Before watching a film, listening to music, or attending an event that claims to represent civil rights activism, look into whether the creators have a genuine connection to the movement or if they have consulted with activists. This will help you make informed decisions about the media you support.
• Create a capsule wardrobe that consists of a limited number of versatile pieces you truly love and feel represent your identity, rather than items that are fashionable or status-driven. This practice not only simplifies decision-making but also ensures that each piece of clothing you own is worn and valued, countering the notion of fashion as a means to superficially emulate authenticity.

How Clothing, Gender Norms, Religion, and Oppression Related to Race Are Linked

Ford argues that dress has historically been a site of conflict, regulation, and resistance. In addition to sumptuary laws that attempted to ensure that dress symbolized social class, dress codes have enforced the dominant norms of sex, religion, ethnicity, and national belonging.

Religion and Dress

Religious authorities and believers alike have always implemented rules for attire to manage the meaning conveyed by clothing. They viewed garments as the tangible expression of spiritual piety. The religious dress codes of past eras were designed to enforce modesty and simplicity, and to establish a clear distinction between the outward display of faith and the worldliness of those living beyond church control. But as fashion transformed and remixed older sartorial symbols, the church struggled to keep its dress codes current in the face of changing styles, cultural traditions, and shifting social meaning.

Religious Clothing Standards to Identify Faithful and Prevent Impropriety

According to Ford, the earliest guidelines about dress were those intended to reinforce religious conviction. The early Christians sought to distinguish themselves from those who lived outside the church and so, they deliberately renounced the opulence and luxury typical of Roman attire and style. Christians wore modest, even humble, clothing and avoided jewelry, cosmetics, and richly colored garments. By the second hundred years, clergy clothing also came to be defined by specific dress codes. For example, in his writings, the early Christian theologian Tertullian attacked Christian women for using cosmetics, arguing that those who used face creams, rouge, and eyebrow lengtheners were rejecting God, who had already made them as beautiful as possible. Tertullian disapproved of adornments: he was especially withering with respect to pearls, which, he pointed out, were "nothing more than the excrement of a sick shellfish." Tertullian, among the earliest people to refer to the dress of the church as “a habit,” admonished Christian women to wear veils and suggested that they might also choose, as a way of demonstrating their sincere devotion to humility, to keep one eye closed when beyond the sight of a chaperone or spouse.

Practical Tips

• Create a visual representation of your "habit" to keep your intentions clear. Draw or craft an item that symbolizes your commitment to a cause or belief, similar to how religious habits signify dedication. If you're committed to learning a new language, you might wear a bracelet with charms representing different countries where that language is spoken.

Other Perspectives

• While early Christians may have renounced opulent Roman attire to distinguish themselves, it's also possible that their choice of clothing was influenced by practical considerations such as cost, availability of materials, and the functionality of simpler garments in their daily lives.
• The focus on external appearance, such as clothing and adornments, might be criticized for potentially overshadowing the importance of internal spiritual development and ethical behavior in religious life.
• Tertullian's views reflect the cultural and historical context of his time and may not be applicable or relevant to modern interpretations of religious texts and teachings.
• Pearls are widely appreciated for their beauty and have been valued in many cultures for centuries, not merely as excrement but as precious gems.
• Advising women to close one eye could be considered impractical or even harmful, as it impairs vision and could lead to accidents or hinder daily activities.

Jewish Identity Indicated by Mandated Earrings

Ford describes how moral disapproval surrounding feminine extravagance and decoration became intertwined with religious prejudice and social anxieties surrounding race and ethnicity. The Roman Catholic Church used a dress code to stigmatize European Jews, and in doing so, made Jewish women’s earrings into a sign of sexual transgression. In the 1400s, as Jews migrated to cities in northern Italy from the south, city governments responded to pressure from church leaders to segregate Jewish people by adopting legislation mandating that Jews wear clothing that set them apart. In many cities, dress codes required Jewish women to display conspicuous jewelry—particularly earrings—as an indicator of their religious faith. In one case, a woman named Allegra was taken into custody for not wearing her earrings. At the time, earrings were not worn by Christian women in Northern Italy, but they had been popular among Christian women in Southern Italy–the original home of many Northern Italian Jews–and some Jewish women had brought the fashion north with them. Religious authorities capitalized on this symbolic association to establish new rules for Jewish women's attire, making earrings representative of the morally degraded Jewish faith.

Practical Tips

• You can explore your own biases by keeping a journal where you note your reactions to people's appearances and attire, especially when they differ from your own cultural or aesthetic norms. By reviewing your entries over time, you'll be able to identify patterns in your thinking and challenge any prejudices you may have unconsciously held.
• Start a book club or discussion group focused on the intersection of fashion and social norms, using jewelry as a starting point for broader conversations. This can be a space to share thoughts on how personal adornment reflects or challenges societal expectations, and to learn from others' interpretations and experiences.
• Create a personal journal where you document instances where you or someone you know faced judgment or consequences for not adhering to a seemingly trivial societal norm. This can help you track patterns and consider whether these norms serve a purpose or if they're ripe for challenge and change.
• Explore regional fashion trends by starting a social media page dedicated to documenting and sharing the diverse ways people adorn themselves in different parts of your country. This could involve taking photos of street fashion, interviewing individuals about their choices in accessories, and highlighting the cultural significance behind these choices. It's a way to appreciate and showcase the variety within a single nation, much like the earring trends in Northern and Southern Italy.
• Host a cultural exchange accessory party with friends or community members. Encourage participants to bring and share accessories that have a cultural or historical significance, explaining their origins and how they've been adapted over time. This not only celebrates diversity but also educates attendees on the historical journey of fashion items like earrings.
• Engage in conversations with people from diverse backgrounds about their perceptions of fashion and morality. Ask them about any specific clothing or accessories that they believe carry moral implications. This can provide a modern-day parallel to the historical context you're examining and offer insights into how these perceptions continue to evolve.