PDF Summary:Destiny Disrupted, by Tamim Ansary

Muslims once ruled a civilization that stretched from Spain to India, pioneering achievements in arts, sciences, and commerce. But with the rise of European powers and the onslaught of colonization and modernization, the Islamic world grappled with decline and foreign dominance.

In Destiny Disrupted, Tamim Ansary examines the turbulent history of Islamic societies, from the faith's founding through modern times. The book traces the religion's evolution, internal conflicts, and exchanges—both peaceful and violent—with the West. The story unfolds through vivid accounts of key figures, revealing Islam's enduring impact amid the struggle to find its place in the modern era.

Through this sweeping narrative, Ansary recounts how Islamic communities confronted the challenges of an ascendant Western ideology and colonialism, while reconciling traditional beliefs with reforms and secular progress. The book provides a nuanced perspective on a faith's complex, continuing journey from the position of a once-dominant world civilization to its present-day reality.

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• The reforms occurred in a context of economic pressure, as the empire faced financial difficulties and increasing debt, partly due to unfavorable trade agreements with European countries.
• These were agreements that granted European powers significant privileges within the Ottoman Empire, such as legal exemptions and economic advantages, which undermined Ottoman sovereignty and control over their own economy and legal system.
• Despite efforts to modernize, the Ottoman military and technological capabilities lagged behind those of European powers, making it difficult to protect economic interests and maintain sovereignty.
• Traditional industries, such as textiles and crafts, suffered due to competition with European imports, leading to unemployment and social unrest among those who relied on these sectors for their livelihoods.
• European consultants were crucial in introducing new technologies and industrial practices to the Ottoman Empire. This included advancements in transportation, communication, and manufacturing, which were essential for modernization but also increased reliance on European technology.

The quest for geopolitical power and control of oil reserves by European nations, particularly between Russia and Britain, overshadowed the religious stories of the central regions of the world.

Ansary weaves into his narrative the fierce worldwide rivalry, often referred to as the geopolitical conflict, which underscores its contribution to the decline of Islamic supremacy and elucidates how the strategic maneuvers by countries in Europe within crucial areas often had profound consequences for the local populations. Tamim Ansary refers to the strategic rivalry and conflict between the British Empire and the Russian Empire for supremacy in Central Asia as the "Great Game," which involved a struggle for dominance over regions from Persia to Afghanistan.

To safeguard its prized possession, Britain devised tactics to thwart Russian progression in a southerly direction. This competition, as described by Ansary, incited clandestine operations and conflicts fought by substitutes, drawing in local leaders and influencing their domestic conflicts. The rulers of the Qajar era engaged in active negotiations to enhance economic gains and territorial control, endeavoring to broker the most favorable deals in the midst of competition among imperial forces.

The rugged terrain and disparate tribal factions in Afghanistan, which frequently resisted external control, became a battleground for intense geopolitical rivalry. British attempts to establish a foothold in Afghanistan, aimed at blocking Russian advances, ended in humiliating defeats. The narrative presented by Ansary highlights how clashes between Afghans and British troops exposed British vulnerabilities and simultaneously bolstered Afghan resolve to resist foreign interference.

The discovery of petroleum reserves during the early 1900s greatly escalated the significance of the geopolitical conflicts within the region often known for its intense battles for dominance. The emergence of oil as a critical element in global strategic rivalry has overshadowed previous primary focuses on traditional cultural and spiritual matters, due to its importance for growing economies and its role as the principal energy source for modern military forces. Ansary emphasized that this change had profound implications for the future of the Islamic world, as European countries and later the United States competed for control over this vital strategic asset.

Context

• The term "Great Game" refers to the strategic rivalry and conflict between the British Empire and the Russian Empire for supremacy in Central Asia during the 19th century. This was driven by Britain's desire to protect its Indian colony from Russian expansion.
• The arbitrary borders drawn by the competing empires often ignored ethnic, tribal, and cultural boundaries, leading to tensions and conflicts that persist to this day. The Durand Line, for example, remains a contentious border between Afghanistan and Pakistan.
• The British invested in infrastructure, such as railways and telegraph lines, to improve military mobility and communication, thereby strengthening their strategic position in the region.
• The involvement of imperial forces in local conflicts often exacerbated existing tensions and could lead to long-term instability, as external powers prioritized their interests over local needs.
• The Qajar rulers sought to modernize Persia's economy and infrastructure, often requiring foreign investment and expertise. This need for economic development made them more susceptible to negotiating with European powers, who offered financial and technical assistance in exchange for concessions.
• Afghanistan's society is traditionally organized into various tribes and ethnic groups, such as Pashtuns, Tajiks, Hazaras, and Uzbeks, each with its own leadership and interests, complicating external attempts at centralized control.
• The Second Anglo-Afghan War (1878-1880) was another attempt by the British to exert influence over Afghanistan. Although they achieved some military victories, the war ended with the British recognizing Afghanistan's independence in its internal affairs, while maintaining control over its foreign policy.
• The Industrial Revolution had increased the demand for energy sources, and oil became crucial for powering machinery, transportation, and later, electricity generation, making control over oil reserves strategically important.
• The Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) was established in 1960 by oil-producing countries to coordinate and unify petroleum policies, significantly impacting global oil prices and supply.
• In response to foreign control, many Islamic countries pursued policies of resource nationalism, seeking to assert control over their own oil resources. This sometimes led to nationalization efforts and conflicts with multinational oil companies.

Following the First World War, the continuous fragmentation of what was once the Ottoman Empire into new independent states by European powers illustrates the growing difficulties faced by Muslims as Europeans imposed new social and political structures in the Middle East.

Ansary clarifies that the chronicles of Islamic civilization identify World War I as a critical turning point. The collapse of the Ottoman Empire, coupled with the rise of nationalism in Europe and the evolution of global interactions, precipitated a period of turmoil and unpredictability, intensifying the difficulties encountered by the Islamic world as its past was increasingly influenced by outside forces.

After emerging victorious in the First World War, the coalition of allied countries sought to reshape international relations, driven by a combination of selfless intentions and personal interests, aiming to create a worldwide structure grounded in the principle of independent, self-governing states. However, Ansary observes that the application of this model to societies with distinct heritages and pasts resulted in the formation of artificial boundaries, which exacerbated already existing conflicts. France and Great Britain carved out spheres of control, often termed "mandates," throughout the Middle East in territories previously under Ottoman rule.

Ansary's description includes areas that currently make up Iraq as well as the territories of Syria, Lebanon, Jordan, and Palestine. All of these groups encountered obstacles as they strived to establish unified national identities. The delineation of borders by European nations often overlooked long-standing tribal domains and profound religious rifts, resulting in conflict and instability. Even though new countries came into existence, their quest for genuine autonomy was hindered by ongoing economic and political reliance on the European powers that had once colonized their lands.

In this period, a non-religious viewpoint began to surface within the Muslim regions. In nations like Turkey, figures such as Ataturk and Amanullah, along with the sovereign of Iran, championed the embrace of Western models of progress, encompassing the advancement of secular schooling, industrial growth, and the commencement of societal reforms. However, these movements, often imposed from above by authoritarian regimes, faced resistance from traditionalist forces and often failed to address the root causes of inequality and alienation. As they pursued autonomy, countries predominantly populated by Muslims became more intricately involved in the sophisticated global strategies largely driven by Western interests.

Context

• The League of Nations established mandates, which were essentially colonies under the guise of preparing regions for self-rule. This system allowed European powers to control and exploit resources while claiming to promote development.
• During World War I, the secret Sykes-Picot Agreement between Britain and France outlined the division of Ottoman territories in the Middle East, setting the stage for future conflicts by disregarding ethnic and sectarian lines.
• Issued by Britain in 1917, this statement supported the establishment of a "national home for the Jewish people" in Palestine, contributing to future conflicts between Jewish and Arab populations.
• In response to imposed structures, nationalist leaders in various regions began to push for genuine independence, sometimes leading to conflicts and revolutions against colonial rule.
• The Ottoman Empire, before its collapse, was a vast and diverse entity that governed a wide range of ethnic, religious, and linguistic groups. Its administrative divisions were often based on these existing social structures rather than rigid national borders.
• The mandates allowed France and Great Britain to maintain economic interests in the region, particularly concerning oil resources and trade routes, which were strategically important.
• Despite challenges, there was a cultural renaissance in literature, arts, and intellectual thought, as local leaders and thinkers sought to define national identities that reflected both modern aspirations and traditional values.
• Many regions in the Middle East were organized around tribal affiliations, which often held more significance than national identity. These tribes had their own systems of governance and social organization, which were disrupted by the imposition of new national borders.
• The infrastructure in many Middle Eastern countries was developed primarily to serve European economic interests, such as the extraction and transport of resources, rather than to support local needs and development.
• Leaders in countries like Iran and Afghanistan sought to modernize their nations by reducing the influence of religious institutions in governance and promoting industrial and educational reforms inspired by Western models.
• The adoption of Western models was part of a broader effort to forge new national identities that were distinct from the Ottoman past, often leading to tensions between modernist and traditionalist factions within these societies.
• During the Cold War, Muslim-majority countries were often caught between the competing interests of the United States and the Soviet Union, with both superpowers seeking to expand their influence in the region.

The Six-Day War marked a pivotal moment, igniting a revival of Islamist movements fueled by Arab defeats and a sense of abandonment by Western powers.

The 1967 Six-Day War, which Ansary views as the peak of the "Crisis of Modernity," led to profound and lasting alterations in the relationship between Western nations and Islamic communities. The clash, which was a notable triumph for Israel against its Arab adversaries, did more than just crush the hopes tied to secular Arab nationalism; it also sparked a revival of Islamist groups, driven by a deep sense of disgrace and a perception of being forsaken by Western countries.

Ansary provides a detailed examination of the complex factors that led to the dispute. He highlights the rise of Gamal Abdul Nasser in Egypt, a charismatic leader who embraced "Islamic Socialism" and sought to unite the Arab world against Western imperialism. The decisive move by Nasser to nationalize the Suez Canal in 1956, challenging the prior dominance of European countries, was initially hailed as a victory for the sovereignty of Arab nations. Nasser's ambitions were hindered by internal Arab conflicts, the strategic plays of Cold War superpowers, and the growing military strength of Israel, which received support from the United States.

The Six-Day War's conclusion dealt a crushing defeat to the Arab nations, dismantling Nasser's dreams of uniting the Arab world and exposing the fallacy of his once-presumed invincibility. After Israel assumed control of Gaza Strip, West Bank, and East Jerusalem, regions with a high concentration of Palestinian residents, the term "Occupied Territories" gained widespread recognition, underscoring the critical issue of Palestinian displacement.

Ansary emphasizes the substantial ideological consequences associated with this conflict. The defeat strengthened Islamist factions, such as the Muslim Brotherhood and its radical offshoots, who declared that the abandonment of Islamic principles for secular Western traditions was the reason for their loss. The decline in the credibility of secular modernism prompted a revival in Islamist activism, which promoted the idea of Islamic governance as a solution to the challenges faced by Muslim societies. The historical consciousness of Arab societies bears the scars of Western deceit and antagonism from Israel, continuing to nurture resentment and acting as a key motivator for modern Islamist movements.

Context

• The Muslim Brotherhood, founded in Egypt in 1928, became a prominent voice advocating for Islamic governance. After the Six-Day War, its influence grew as it positioned itself as a defender of Islamic values against Western and secular ideologies.
• The war led to a period of diplomatic isolation for many Arab countries, as Western nations prioritized their relationship with Israel, further deepening the sense of abandonment.
• In the aftermath, the United Nations Security Council passed Resolution 242, calling for the withdrawal of Israeli forces from territories occupied in the conflict and the recognition of all states' right to live in peace, which became a basis for future peace negotiations.
• The defeat in the Six-Day War prompted a reevaluation of cultural and religious identity among Arab populations. Many began to question whether Western-inspired secularism was compatible with their Islamic heritage.
• The swift and decisive defeat of Arab forces in the Six-Day War shattered the myth of Nasser's military prowess and exposed vulnerabilities in his leadership and strategic planning.
• Numerous human rights organizations have reported on the conditions in the Occupied Territories, highlighting issues such as restrictions on movement, access to resources, and the impact of military operations on civilians.
• Nasser's leadership style and charisma made him a symbol of Arab nationalism. He was seen as a unifying figure who could potentially lead the Arab world to greater autonomy and strength, particularly against colonial and imperial powers.
• The global media coverage of the war and its aftermath played a role in shaping public perceptions. The portrayal of the conflict and its outcomes influenced how Islamic communities viewed Western narratives and intentions.
• The Six-Day War occurred in June 1967, when Israel fought against Egypt, Jordan, and Syria. The rapid and decisive victory for Israel resulted in significant territorial gains, including the Sinai Peninsula, Golan Heights, West Bank, and East Jerusalem.
• The Six-Day War occurred in June 1967, involving Israel and the neighboring states of Egypt, Jordan, and Syria. The rapid and decisive victory by Israel had significant geopolitical repercussions in the Middle East.
• Repeated failures to achieve a lasting peace settlement or address Palestinian statehood through Western-mediated diplomacy contributed to the perception of deceit, as promises of support for Arab causes often went unfulfilled.
• The idea of Islamic governance gained traction and influenced future conflicts and movements, such as the Iranian Revolution in 1979, where Islamic principles were central to the political agenda.
• The war exacerbated existing economic challenges in the region, leading to increased poverty and unemployment, which further fueled discontent and resentment.
• The Israeli occupation of territories with large Palestinian populations became a central issue, with Islamist groups often positioning themselves as defenders of Palestinian rights, further boosting their legitimacy and support.
• Nasser's rhetoric and policies, including the blockade of the Straits of Tiran to Israeli shipping, were seen as aggressive moves by Israel, escalating the likelihood of military confrontation.
• The canal symbolized European colonial influence in the Middle East. Control over the canal allowed European powers to exert economic and political dominance over the region, facilitating the movement of goods and military forces.
• Countries like Iran and Turkey, which were not part of the Arab League, also played significant roles in the region's geopolitics, sometimes aligning with Western powers and further complicating Nasser's efforts to consolidate Arab unity.
• The U.S.-Israel relationship was solidified through strategic partnerships, including intelligence sharing and joint military exercises, which further bolstered Israel's military prowess.

The Islamic world showcases a vibrant mosaic of intellectual, cultural, and spiritual diversity, which includes debates, internal conflicts, and progressions toward contemporary advancements and improvements.

This section delves into the religious dynamics and internal mechanisms at play among Muslims. Ansary explores the diverse intellectual movements that emerged within Muslim societies, scrutinizing the debates they sparked and the efforts of Islamic scholars to tackle the challenges posed by the advent of modernity. Ansary adeptly portrays the variety of viewpoints that have shaped the evolution of the civilization underpinned by Islam, acknowledging the common faith that binds its followers.

A variety of ideas.

The early Islamic centuries were marked by a vibrant intellectual culture. Ansary emphasizes the contrast between the ulama, dedicated to the conservation of Islamic legal principles, and the philosophers, who sought to integrate the insights of Greek thinkers into the teachings of Islam. He also delves into the emergence of Sufism, an esoteric branch of Islam that provided a means for individuals to achieve a personal communion with the Divine.

The conflict stemming from the clash between those who favored unadulterated religious doctrines and those who supported the incorporation of Greek rational thought into Islamic teachings demonstrates the hindrance to both scientific progress and the development of a unique Islamic view of the natural world.

Ansary depicts the scenario as a clash between different methods of integrating spirituality with rational thought. The ulama, Islamic legal experts, upheld the belief that the ultimate sources of authority were the Qur'an and hadith, relying on a heritage of interpretative knowledge passed down through generations. The Sharia, seen as a comprehensive guide for life given by divine decree, is therefore considered to transcend human reasoning.

Ansary depicted the philosophers as being significantly influenced by the works of Plato and Aristotle. They sought to blend the insights of Greek philosophy with Islamic principles, asserting that employing logical reasoning could deepen the understanding and fortify the convictions of faith. However, Ansary clarifies that this approach faced resistance because it challenged the ulama's sole authority to interpret Islamic teachings.

The 11th century marked the pinnacle of theological discussion as al-Ghazali, a distinguished theologian, came to prominence. Ghazali, who had an extensive understanding of Islamic sciences, embarked on an extensive exploration of philosophy, where he thoroughly grasped the intricacies of Greek ideologies prior to firmly dismissing them. His seminal work challenged the foundational aspects of Aristotelian philosophy, underscoring the dominance of faith over rationality.

Ansary argues that the dominance of the ulama had lasting effects, hindering the development of independent scientific inquiry and limiting the growth of creative thinking in Muslim communities. The endeavors of Islamic scholars to reconcile scientific progress with religious doctrines made it difficult to cultivate a perspective on science that was entirely secular, even though there were significant contributions to mathematics, astronomy, and medicine.

Context

• Despite the tensions, the Islamic world made significant advancements in various scientific fields. Scholars like Al-Khwarizmi in mathematics and Ibn Sina (Avicenna) in medicine made lasting contributions, although their work often had to be framed within a religious context.
• The ulama are scholars recognized for their expertise in Islamic law and theology. They play a crucial role in interpreting religious texts and providing guidance on religious and legal matters within the Muslim community.
• Sharia influences various aspects of life, including legal systems, social norms, and ethical standards in many Muslim-majority countries, reflecting its perceived divine origin.
• Commentaries on Aristotle by Islamic philosophers were crucial in preserving and interpreting his works, which might have otherwise been lost to history.
• Greek philosophy, particularly the works of Plato and Aristotle, emphasized logic and empirical observation, which contrasted with the ulama's focus on divine revelation as the primary source of knowledge. This philosophical approach suggested that human reason could independently arrive at truths, potentially undermining the ulama's interpretative authority.
• Al-Ghazali's critiques led to a decline in the influence of Greek philosophy in the Islamic world, paving the way for a more mystical and spiritual approach to Islam, exemplified by Sufism.
• The tension between reason and faith was not unique to the Islamic world; similar debates occurred in Christian Europe. However, the resolution of these debates differed, affecting the trajectory of scientific and philosophical development in each culture.
• The translation movement in the Islamic world, where Greek, Persian, and Indian texts were translated into Arabic, facilitated a rich exchange of ideas. This movement was crucial for the development of science but also required careful negotiation with existing religious beliefs.
• The mathematician Al-Khwarizmi, working in the 9th century, is known for his work on algebra, which introduced systematic solutions of linear and quadratic equations. His name gave rise to the term "algorithm."

Sufism, recognized for its enigmatic qualities within the Muslim faith, touched various social strata including certain influential circles, highlighting its contribution to fostering cohesion and spiritual growth, even amidst occasional clashes with stricter doctrinal views.

Ansary characterizes it as offering a unique path to spiritual fulfillment that is specific to Islamic customs. Sufis pursued a deep and intimate bond with the Divine, striving for a spiritual encounter that transcended the conventional ceremonies and rigid interpretations associated with the broader Islamic practice. They participated in various spiritual practices including meditation, chanting, and asceticism, aiming to purify their souls and achieve a state of harmony with the divine.

Ansary highlights the captivating nature of Sufi practices, particularly in periods of growing societal division and intensifying political turmoil. People looking for spiritual solace and a community that transcended social limits discovered refuge in the Sufi orders, while the ulama focused on developing Islamic law and maintaining social norms.

Sufism often clashed with established religious leaders, a point emphasized by Ansary. The ulama accused certain Sufis of participating in activities and uttering ecstatic pronouncements that, they believed, posed a risk to the fundamental principles of Islam. The turmoil of the 10th century was epitomized by the execution of the mystic al-Hallaj.

Sufism, according to Ansary, acted as a unifying influence across the Islamic world. The order's sway spread across numerous territories, attracting followers from diverse ethnic backgrounds and social levels. Sufi masters fostered an atmosphere of inclusiveness and harmony that surpassed the boundaries of sects by emphasizing love, compassion, and strict spiritual practice.

Practical Tips

• Develop a personal ritual that symbolizes purification, such as a weekly walk in nature to metaphorically 'wash away' negative thoughts or experiences. This ritual can serve as a physical manifestation of your desire to cleanse your soul, similar to how some people use sage smudging to clear energy. During your walk, focus on releasing any negativity and inviting positive energy into your life.
• Create a personal retreat space in your home where you can disconnect from societal pressures and reflect on your values. This could be a small corner with comfortable seating, calming colors, and items that represent peace and unity to you, such as plants, stones, or artwork.
• Volunteer with an organization that advocates for religious freedom to gain firsthand experience with the modern implications of conflicts like those faced by Sufism. By supporting those who are marginalized for their spiritual beliefs, you can contribute to a broader understanding of the importance of religious tolerance and the risks faced by spiritual innovators.
• Curate a playlist of Sufi music from various regions of the Islamic world and listen to it during your daily routine. Pay attention to the lyrics and the emotions conveyed through the music. This can be a way to immerse yourself in the spiritual and cultural richness of Sufism and appreciate its role in connecting people across different lands.
• You can explore cultural diversity by attending a local event that celebrates multiple ethnic traditions. Look for festivals or gatherings in your area that are known for their multicultural aspects. By participating, you'll experience a variety of cultural expressions and can engage with people from different backgrounds, mirroring the inclusive nature of Sufi orders.
• Create a 'Compassion Challenge' for yourself, where you perform a random act of kindness each day for a month. This could range from helping a stranger carry groceries to writing a supportive note to someone who might need it. The goal is to make compassion a daily habit, reinforcing the values of love and compassion in everyday life.

Dividing Currents

This part of the text explores the emergence of two important Islamic sects, Shi'ism and Wahhabism, which emerged as distinct from the mainstream Sunni practice. Ansary clarifies that the intense disputes regarding leadership and the differences in interpreting doctrine were crucial in shaping the social, political, and religious landscapes throughout Islamic communities.

Shi'ism, as a branch of Islam, acknowledged an Imam with a divine connection as the rightful sovereign, and this conviction spurred resistance to the governing powers not only during the era of the Caliphate but also throughout the times dominated by the Ottomans and other ruling dynasties.

Ansary delves into the origins of Shi'ism, emphasizing that the split within Islam arose over disputes regarding the rightful successor to guide the believers following the death of Prophet Mohammed. Shi'i Muslims, as Ansary explains, believe that Ali, Mohammed's cousin and son-in-law, was the rightful successor to the Prophet, possessing a divinely ordained authority passed down through his lineage.

Shi'ism sets itself apart by holding the conviction that Ali and his lineage, recognized as Imams, have a unique standing, which is a belief not shared with the Sunni majority. Shi'i Muslims revere their Imams as spiritual guides, endowed with a sacred connection to the Divine, serving as channels that provide a clear path to everlasting salvation. The historical narrative is infused with a sense of divine wisdom and virtue embodied by the Imams, who were wrongfully denied their rightful leadership.

The writer recounts the events at Karbala in 680 CE, emphasizing that Hussein, the son of Ali and recognized as the third Imam, met his end, solidifying the Shi'i identity with notions of resistance and dignified struggle. The annual commemoration, marked by profound grief and collective lamentation, evolved into an emblematic representation of Shi'i faith and their defiance against the authorities, paying tribute to the sacrifice Hussein embraced.

Throughout history, as portrayed by Ansary, Shi'ism has served as a rallying point for communities that perceived themselves as marginalized by the dominant Sunni leadership. In the sixteenth century, Persia's Safavid Empire embraced Twelver Shi'ism, the most widespread branch of Shi'ism, as the official state faith, establishing a distinct political and cultural identity that still resonates in modern Iran. Shi'ism should be recognized as encompassing more than a single movement. The faith is comprised of a wide variety of denominations and perspectives, often reflecting the differences that stem from historical and geographical contexts. Shi'ism, characterized by its diverse internal composition, has consistently challenged both secular rulers and Sunni clerics, thus preserving its status as an enduring influence in the story of Islam.

Other Perspectives

• The notion of divine connection in leadership could be used to justify authoritarian rule, which may suppress dissent and violate the rights of those who do not share the same beliefs.
• The split was not an instantaneous event but a gradual process of theological and political divergence that solidified over generations.
• Historians and secular scholars might contend that the notion of divine ordination of leaders is a theological interpretation that cannot be substantiated through historical evidence alone.
• Sunni Islam contends that the concept of a divinely appointed Imamate, as believed in Shi'ism, is not explicitly supported by the Quran or the teachings of the Prophet Mohammed, which are the primary sources of Islamic jurisprudence and theology.
• Some historians and critics might argue that the veneration of Imams can lead to a personality cult, where the focus on the individual can overshadow the broader teachings and principles of Islam.
• The interpretation of historical events, such as the succession to the Prophet Muhammad, varies among Muslims, and some may view the outcome as a result of human decision-making processes rather than an inherent wrongful act.
• The idea that Karbala solidified Shi'i identity could be seen as an oversimplification, as the process of identity formation is complex and multifaceted, involving a continuous interplay of historical events, religious teachings, and cultural influences.
• The emphasis on defiance could overshadow the other aspects of the commemoration, such as its role in promoting community cohesion, spiritual renewal, and historical remembrance among Shi'i Muslims.
• The notion that Shi'ism inherently challenges dominant Sunni leadership may overlook instances where Shi'i and Sunni communities have coexisted peacefully and even supported one another against common threats.
• While Twelver Shi'ism became the official state faith under the Safavids, suggesting that this directly established modern Iran's identity may overlook the subsequent historical developments and social changes that have also significantly influenced Iran's identity.
• While Shi'ism does include a variety of denominations, it could be argued that the core theological principles and the reverence of the Imams are consistent across these denominations, suggesting a level of uniformity that might be understated by emphasizing the variety.
• The influence of Shi'ism within the broader context of Islam has varied greatly over time and geography, and there have been periods where its influence was significantly diminished, particularly in regions where Sunni Islam was overwhelmingly dominant.

Wahhabism promotes a form of Islam that insists on a strict conformity to the explicit teachings and principles found in the Qur'an, which is frequently seen as a crucial factor in the propulsion of modern global jihadism.

This part delves into how Wahhabism, an Islamic movement, has profoundly influenced the contemporary world as it expanded and gained prominence. In the 1700s, as Tamim Ansary has noted, the movement gathered pace with Abdul Wahhab's vigorous efforts to restore the unadulterated form of Islam that was observed by the Prophet Mohammed and his initial disciples.

Wahhab, inspired by the austere doctrines of a 14th-century scholar who underscored the paramount importance of the Qur'an and denounced all forms of religious innovation, contested the traditions and convictions that had slowly merged with Islam over the centuries. He criticized the exaltation of figures esteemed within Sufism and the emphasis on mystical experiences, in addition to objecting to interpretations of Islamic law that deviated from the explicit text of the Qur'an.

Mohammed Ibn Saud, a tribal leader with ambitions to consolidate the Arabian Peninsula, forged a substantial political alliance with Wahhab, as described by Ansary. Their alliance, strengthened through matrimonial ties and shared fervor in their convictions, led to the establishment of the first Saudi state, which spread a stringent interpretation of Islamic teachings through both religious counsel and military imposition.

Ansary argues that what sets Wahhabism apart from other Islamic reform movements is its combination of rigid theological principles with ambitions of a political nature. The alliance between Saudi Arabia and the Wahhabi movement perceived the world as being sharply split between followers of their strict interpretation of Islam and those straying from the true faith, justifying the use of force against any who opposed their doctrines or resisted their authority.

Despite facing initial setbacks, including defeats at the hands of forces from the Ottoman Empire and Egypt, Wahhabism persisted, attracting individuals who longed for a revival of a past era of Islamic glory. In the twentieth century, Saudi Arabia's vast oil wealth, supported by Western countries, facilitated the global spread of Wahhabism, which financed the establishment of mosques, schools, and charitable organizations that promoted its strict interpretation of Islamic principles. Ansary suggests that Wahhabism, with its rigid understanding of the Qur'an, its dismissal of contemporary advancements, and its support for hostility against those it considers foes of Islam, provides the religious foundation for modern jihadist beliefs that continue to pose challenges worldwide.

Practical Tips

• Develop a personal strategy for forming beneficial relationships by identifying your strengths and what you can offer to a potential ally. Reflect on your skills, resources, or knowledge that others might find valuable. Then, look for individuals or groups whose goals align with yours but who might be lacking in the areas you excel. Approach them with a proposal for collaboration that highlights the mutual benefits of the alliance.

Other Perspectives

• The emphasis on strict conformity may disregard the role of the Hadiths, the recorded sayings and actions of the Prophet Muhammad, which are also considered important sources of Islamic law and moral guidance.
• The term "jihad" has a range of meanings within Islamic tradition, including a personal, internal struggle for righteousness, which is distinct from the concept of violent global jihad.
• Abdul Wahhab's interpretation of the "unadulterated form of Islam" is subject to debate, as Islamic scholars have diverse views on the teachings and practices of Prophet Mohammed and his disciples.
• The exaltation of figures within Sufism often reflects the veneration of individuals who have exemplified the principles of Islam in their lives, serving as inspirational role models for devout Muslims seeking a deeper connection with the divine.
• Islamic jurisprudence (fiqh) has a long tradition of scholarly interpretation (ijtihad) that considers the context (asbab al-nuzul) and the intentions (maqasid) behind the Qur'anic revelations, suggesting that strict adherence to the text without interpretation may overlook these aspects.
• The term "rigid theological principles" could be contested, as what may appear rigid to outsiders might be seen as a faithful adherence to religious texts by practitioners.
• The principle of using force against those who oppose a religious doctrine is not unique to Wahhabism and can be found in the history of many other religious and ideological movements.
• Wahhabism's persistence may be less about its inherent resilience and more about the geopolitical and financial support it received, particularly from the Saudi state and its oil wealth.
• It is important to recognize that the spread of religious ideas is a complex process influenced by a multitude of factors, including but not limited to geopolitical strategies, local religious dynamics, and the role of media and technology in disseminating ideas.
• Some Wahhabi-funded institutions may engage in interfaith dialogue and contribute to a better understanding of Islam in the context of global religious pluralism.
• Many Muslims, including those who follow a conservative interpretation of Islam, unequivocally condemn violence and terrorism, indicating that adherence to strict religious principles does not inherently lead to violent extremism.

Efforts aimed at fostering progress and improvement.

In this section, the writer explores the diverse approaches the Muslim world utilized to progress and adjust when faced with the dominance of the West. The trio of movements shared a common goal of revitalizing Islam and restoring Muslim preeminence, despite significant differences in their methods and aims.

The efforts of Sayyid Jamaluddin-i-Afghan to initiate a revival that would bring Islam up to date without compromising its fundamental principles highlighted the divide between those who believed that Islam naturally encourages scientific inquiry, democratic principles, and individual interpretation, and those who argued that all vital truths are contained in the original divine revelations.

Ansary portrays Sayyid Jamaluddin-i-Afghan as a pivotal figure in the nineteenth-century movement for Islamic reform, distinguished by his exceptional intelligence and involvement in political endeavors. He traveled extensively, passionately promoting unity among Islamic nations, fully aware of the shared risk presented by Western expansionism.

Jamaluddin, as Ansary details, believed that Muslims needed to modernize and reform their societies, not by emulating the West but by rediscovering the true spirit of Islam. He regarded Islam as a religion founded upon the tenet of rationality and advancement, which, during its early development, fostered scientific discoveries and cultivated a community based on fairness. He contended that the observed deterioration within Islamic nations stemmed from a deviation from core principles, not from any intrinsic shortcomings within Islam's doctrines.

Jamaluddin's attempts to revitalize Islam were met with resistance from both traditionalists and advocates of a modern, secular perspective. The Islamic legal scholars, who were guardians of the faith's doctrines, opposed his call for independent analysis of the Qur'an, viewing it as a threat to their entrenched authority. Advocates of secular modernity, inspired by European advancements, argued that embracing Western scientific and technological progress was essential for the progress of Muslim societies, even if it meant setting aside certain aspects of their religious traditions.

Ansary depicts Jamaluddin as a complex figure whose ideas and lasting impact have been reinterpreted by various Islamic factions over time. He laid the groundwork for modern Islamic philosophy, which persistently seeks ways to harmonize age-old doctrines with the challenges that today's Muslims encounter, by promoting an interpretation of Islam that is both progressive and attuned to the times.

Context

• The secular modernists of the time were influenced by the Enlightenment and the Industrial Revolution, which emphasized reason, science, and secular governance. They often saw religion as an impediment to progress, contrasting with Jamaluddin's vision of a modernized yet religiously faithful society.
• The Qur'an and Hadiths emphasize the importance of seeking knowledge. Verses in the Qur'an encourage reflection on the natural world, which has been interpreted by some scholars as a call for scientific exploration and understanding.
• By promoting unity, Jamaluddin aimed to create a collective political and economic strength among Islamic nations, which would make them less vulnerable to Western political and military pressures.
• The idea of rediscovering the "true spirit of Islam" often refers to the Islamic Golden Age (8th to 14th centuries), when the Islamic world was a leading center for science, philosophy, medicine, and education. Reformers like Jamaluddin-i-Afghan believed that returning to the values and practices of this era could inspire contemporary progress.
• The resistance from traditionalists was often rooted in a fear of losing cultural and religious identity, while secularists worried about the compatibility of religious principles with modern statehood.
• Jamaluddin's call for independent analysis relates to the concept of 'ijtihad,' which is the process of making a legal decision by independent interpretation of the legal sources. This concept has been a point of contention, as it challenges the authority of established interpretations.
• During the 19th century, many Muslim societies were experiencing political and economic decline, while European powers were expanding their influence globally. This period saw the rise of colonialism, which brought Western ideas and technologies to the forefront.
• Traditionalists often viewed any reinterpretation of Islamic texts as a threat to the established religious order. They believed that the original interpretations and practices were divinely inspired and should remain unchanged to preserve the purity of the faith.
• The challenges he addressed, such as balancing tradition with modernity, remain relevant today as Muslim communities worldwide continue to navigate issues of identity, globalization, and technological advancement.

Sayyid Ahmad of Aligarh led a movement that aimed to merge secular modernity with Islamic principles, marked by the creation of an ethical structure based on rationality and enriched by the profound traditions of Islamic teachings, showing a persistent effort to harmonize longstanding Islamic principles with modern concepts.

Ansary portrays Sir Sayyid Ahmad Khan as a pivotal figure in the story of Islamic reform, honored with the knighthood because of his allegiance to the British Raj. His time in England and his life under British rule in India shaped his perspective on a modern Islam thriving within a secular context.

Ansary conveys that Sayyid Ahmad believed the stagnation in progress within the Muslim community was due to their hesitation to embrace modern educational techniques and scientific thought. He viewed the principles of Western science as applicable and unbiased across all contexts, aligning with Islamic teachings. He contended that, in light of these discoveries, Muslims ought to abandon superstitious beliefs and employ their age-old teachings for ethical deliberation instead of adhering to them as an inflexible code of directives.

Ansary highlights the notable achievement of establishing the Mohammedan Anglo-Orient College, which ultimately became the institution recognized presently as Aligarh Muslim University. The academy's curriculum integrated traditional Islamic teachings alongside modern scientific discoveries and examinations of Western literature, reflecting the educational methods of British universities. Sayyid viewed the university as a crucial establishment for enhancing the intellectual prowess of Indian Muslims, integrating Islamic principles with modern progress.

The viewpoints put forth by Sayyid Ahmad ignited significant discussion. His willingness to work alongside British rule and to adopt Western education and rational Islamic interpretations drew criticism from traditionalists and advocates of Muslim self-rule. An increasing number of Muslims in India, inspired by his teachings, deemed progress in education and scientific knowledge essential for improving their social and economic standing.

Context

• Sayyid Ahmad Khan was part of a broader Islamic reform movement that sought to reinterpret Islamic teachings in light of contemporary challenges. This movement aimed to reconcile faith with reason and modernity, addressing the needs of a changing world.
• The integration of rationality with Islamic teachings is not a new concept. Historically, Islamic philosophers like Al-Farabi and Ibn Rushd (Averroes) emphasized the compatibility of reason and faith, arguing that rational inquiry could coexist with religious belief.
• Traditional Islamic education at the time was primarily focused on religious studies, often neglecting subjects like science and mathematics, which were becoming increasingly important in a rapidly industrializing world.
• The British colonial presence in India introduced Western education systems and scientific methods, which were often seen as superior by colonial powers. Sayyid Ahmad's advocacy for Western science was partly a response to this colonial context, aiming to empower Muslims within the existing power structures.
• Aligarh Muslim University, as it is known today, has grown into a prestigious institution with a diverse student body. It continues to be a symbol of educational excellence and a testament to Sayyid Ahmad's vision of a progressive, enlightened Muslim community. The university has produced numerous influential leaders, scholars, and professionals who have contributed to various fields globally.
• The college's curriculum represented an attempt to synthesize two distinct cultural and intellectual traditions, fostering a generation of Muslims who could navigate both Islamic and Western worlds effectively.
• Many Muslims sought greater autonomy and were involved in movements that aimed to reduce or eliminate British control. They believed that aligning too closely with British systems and ideas could undermine efforts for self-determination and independence.
• The introduction of new industries and administrative roles under British rule created economic opportunities that required knowledge of modern sciences and languages, making education a valuable asset for employment.

The allure of the Islamist viewpoint grew as it attributed the weaknesses within the Muslim community to the governance of secular authorities and emphasized secular modernism's failure to free Islamic nations from Western dominance.

This section explores how secular modernism first captivated and then fell short of delivering on its promises within Islamic communities. Ansary argues that secular Muslim leaders like Atatürk, including Iran's monarch and Nasser, struggled to secure genuine independence for their nations, often resorting to authoritarian tactics that disenfranchised numerous citizens, which inadvertently heightened the appeal of Islamist factions.

Tamim Ansary attributes the emergence of the crisis to multiple contributing factors. Despite the allure of Western development models with their emphasis on industrial expansion, they frequently masked the persistent economic and political dominance maintained by European countries, even amidst the adoption of secular education and broad societal changes. Muslim nations striving for modernization became ensnared in a complex network of reliance, with Western corporations and foreign governments exerting influence over their economic frameworks while supplying essential economic and military assistance.

Ansary suggests that the diminishing sway of secular modernists was not solely due to their economic or political complications; it also arose from their detachment from their own cultural heritage. Leaders such as Ataturk sought to transform their societies by imposing Western social standards from the top down, discarding age-old traditions that were deeply embedded in Islamic principles for a secular viewpoint. However, these authoritarian-imposed top-down reforms led to a sense of estrangement among numerous followers of Islam, who viewed these alterations as disrespectful to their faith and as a diminishment of their cultural heritage.

The Six-Day War resulted in a crushing defeat for the Arabs, leading to a significant decline in confidence in secular Arab nationalism and providing Islamists with a compelling narrative of Western betrayal and Muslim humiliation. Individuals who felt that modern society's advancements had bypassed them, especially those who believed their situation had not improved because of secular changes and attributed their struggles to the affluent upper class influenced by Western values, found themselves attracted to the tenets of Islamist ideology. The environment was ripe for a revival of Islamic traditions.

Other Perspectives

• The secular authorities may have been scapegoated for broader geopolitical issues, such as foreign intervention and global economic pressures, which are beyond the control of any single governance model.
• Western dominance is a historical issue that predates the rise of secular modernism, suggesting that the persistence of Western influence cannot be attributed to secular modernism alone.
• Atatürk's reforms in Turkey did lead to a significant degree of independence from Western powers, particularly in comparison to the Ottoman Empire's previous status as the "sick man of Europe."
• Some citizens may have supported secular leaders' authoritarian tactics as necessary for state-building and modernization, viewing them as a temporary measure towards achieving stability and progress.
• The economic and political dominance by European countries has been challenged and reduced over time by the rise of new global players and the increasing multipolarity of international relations, indicating a shift in global power dynamics.
• The narrative of reliance may oversimplify the diverse economic strategies employed by Muslim nations, some of which have developed robust economies with diversified partnerships beyond Western corporations and governments.
• There is a perspective that sees the adoption of Western social standards as a way to counteract the colonial narrative by proving that non-Western societies could adopt and adapt modernity on their own terms.
• The estrangement might also reflect a natural tension that occurs in any society undergoing significant transformation, regardless of religious or cultural background.
• The decline in confidence in secular Arab nationalism might have been part of a broader trend of disillusionment with various forms of governance, not just secular nationalism, including the perceived failures of pan-Arabism and other political ideologies of the time.
• It's possible to view the war as a catalyst for self-reflection and reform within the Arab world, rather than just a source of humiliation.
• The influence of the affluent upper class is not unique to societies undergoing secular changes; disparities between the upper class and other societal groups exist across different types of societies, including those with religious governance.
• The idea of a ripe environment for Islamic tradition could be a retrospective interpretation that does not consider other contemporary factors that may have influenced the political and social landscape, such as economic pressures, global politics, or the influence of other ideologies.

The community of Muslims faced considerable challenges as a result of outside forces, such as the establishment of colonial rule, the rise of European powers, and the complexities introduced with the onset of modern times.

This part examines the external influences and challenges that have shaped the trajectory of Muslim societies. Ansary explores the complex outcomes of European interference, driven by financial ambitions and a belief in their cultural superiority, which transformed the social structures and systems of governance within Muslim societies.

The area faced challenges from the West.

The section explores the various strategies that Western countries have used to disrupt Islamic communities, including direct military confrontations during the Crusades and the gradual infiltration of European economic, political, and cultural standards. Ansary highlights the influence of certain exchanges, often related to the development of the Islamic realm, on the difficulties encountered by Muslims in adapting to modern times during the 20th and 21st centuries.

European Christian forces began a series of invasions into the Middle East during the Crusades, highlighting the growing weaknesses in the Islamic world and sowing the seeds of a long-lasting hostility that persists to this day.

Ansary clarifies that the Crusades marked a critical juncture in the developing relationships between Western civilizations and the Islamic world. The initial Muslim response to the European intrusion was initially one of bewildered indifference; however, the brutal behavior of the Crusaders, coupled with the loss of Jerusalem and other territories, sparked a renewed commitment to the defense of their faith and fostered an increasing awareness of a collective Muslim identity in contrast to the Christian realm.

Ansary highlights that the disunity among Islamic nations rendered them exposed and unable to mount a unified response to the European invasions during the medieval period. The creation of Crusader states along the Mediterranean coastline served as a constant reminder of Western aggression and sparked rivalries among Muslim leaders. Ansary suggests that initiatives stemming from the West engender feelings of treachery.

Context

• The First Crusade began in 1096 and was prompted by Pope Urban II's call to help the Byzantine Empire, which was under threat from Muslim Seljuk Turks.
• Figures like Saladin emerged as unifying leaders who were able to rally Muslim forces against the Crusaders, eventually leading to the recapture of Jerusalem in 1187.
• The contrast with the Christian invaders, who were often seen as outsiders with different religious and cultural practices, helped solidify a sense of "us versus them," reinforcing a collective Muslim identity.
• During the time of the Crusades, the Islamic world was divided into various caliphates and sultanates, such as the Abbasid Caliphate in Baghdad and the Fatimid Caliphate in Egypt, each with its own political agendas and rivalries.
• The Crusaders built numerous castles and fortifications, such as Krak des Chevaliers and the Citadel of Raymond de Saint-Gilles, which symbolized their military dominance and served as strategic defense points against Muslim forces.
• Control over key trade routes and economically prosperous regions was a significant factor in the rivalries, as leaders vied for dominance over these lucrative areas.