PDF Summary:Crypt, by Alice Roberts

In Crypt, Alice Roberts takes readers on a fascinating journey through human history by investigating diseases and lives from the past. This unique book seamlessly combines archaeological evidence with cutting-edge genetic analysis to shed new light on topics like the Black Death, leprosy, syphilis, and even prehistoric biological sex diversity.

Roberts demonstrates how the complementary methods of osteobiography and archaeogenomics work in tandem to resolve lingering mysteries and question long-held beliefs. From Becket's martyrdom sparking a clash of religious and secular power, to the St. Brice's Day massacre's tragic ethnic undertones - this comprehensive scientific approach paints a vivid picture of how our ancestors lived and perished.

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• These were not only decorative but served as visual storytelling tools in medieval churches, depicting the life and miracles of saints like Becket to educate and inspire the largely illiterate population.
• During the 12th century, the Church wielded significant influence in Europe, often clashing with monarchs over issues like investiture, which involved the appointment of church officials. The conflict between Becket and Henry II was part of a broader struggle between church and state.
• The rapid canonization of Thomas Becket by Pope Alexander III in 1173, just three years after his death, was unusual and underscored the Church's intent to emphasize his martyrdom as a divine endorsement of ecclesiastical authority.

Destruction of Saints' Shrines and Relics to Erase Church Influence During English Reformation

Henry VIII's break with the Roman Catholic Church and the subsequent Dissolution of the Monasteries marked a significant shift in the power dynamics between the Church and the State. The elimination of saints' shrines and the seizure of relics by the Crown were deliberate attempts to eradicate the influence of the Church and to undermine its authority. Roberts argues that the demolition of Becket's shrine at Canterbury Cathedral was a particularly symbolic act, representing Henry VIII's attempt to erase the memory of a figure who embodied the ultimate power of the pope over monarchs. Despite these efforts, Becket's following persisted, with the Anglican Church eventually acknowledging his sainthood, and his death continues to attract people to Canterbury Cathedral even now.

Context

• The changes sparked resistance, including the Pilgrimage of Grace in 1536, a large-scale rebellion in Northern England protesting the dissolution and religious reforms.
• Despite the official stance, many people continued to venerate saints and relics in secret, and some Catholic practices persisted in England, contributing to ongoing religious tensions and conflicts.
• The destruction of shrines and relics was not only a political move but also had a profound cultural impact, as it disrupted centuries-old religious practices and traditions that were integral to community life.
• Becket's story has been preserved through various cultural works, including literature and drama, such as T.S. Eliot's play "Murder in the Cathedral," which helped maintain his legacy in the public consciousness.
• After his canonization in 1173, Canterbury became a major pilgrimage site, with people visiting to seek spiritual benefits and healing, a tradition that continues today.

Genetics and Archaeogenomics: Unlocking Disease History and Reconstructing Early Existence

This section highlights the transformative impact of archaeogenomics in understanding the historical trajectory of illnesses and reconstructing past lives. Roberts describes how ancient DNA (aDNA) has resolved long-standing debates about the origins and spread of diseases such as the plague, but also reveals previously unknown details about individual and population experiences of diseases like leprosy and Paget's. Roberts further discusses how aDNA analysis can reveal unexpected details about ancient communities, such as the presence of different sexes in prehistoric Britain.

Genetics Revolutionizing Our Knowledge of Plagues Throughout History

Roberts argues that archaeogenomics has completely revolutionized what we know about plague. Before aDNA analysis, the origin of the Black Death, along with the First and Third Plague pandemics, was debated, with various possibilities including anthrax, typhus, tuberculosis, and hemorrhagic fever. aDNA analysis finally confirmed that the cause of all three pandemics was Yersinia pestis.

Ancient Dna Confirms Yersinia Pestis Caused the Black Death and Historical Plagues

Using DNA extracted from archaeological remains dating to the time of documented plague outbreaks, geneticists were able to identify the presence of Yersinia pestis, confirming that this bacterium was responsible for the Black Death, the earliest pandemic beginning with the Justinianic Plague in the 6th century, and the Third Pandemic beginning in China in the 19th century. This confirmation resolved decades of debate and validated the beliefs of many researchers.

Context

• These remains can include bones, teeth, and other preserved materials from historical sites. They provide a source of aDNA, which can be used to study past human populations and the pathogens that affected them.
• Plague can manifest in different forms, including bubonic, septicemic, and pneumonic, each with distinct symptoms and modes of transmission.

Other Perspectives

• The validation of researchers' beliefs does not inherently imply that the scientific process was unbiased; confirmation bias could play a role in interpreting results that support pre-existing beliefs.

Genetic Studies Challenge Plague Origin and Spread Narratives

Roberts discusses how aDNA challenges established narratives about the beginnings and spread of plague. Initial analyses suggested that the First Pandemic originated in Africa, but genetic studies of Y. pestis genomes point to Central Asia as the more likely source. Further aDNA studies have shown how the plague bacterium evolved over time, developing new adaptations for transmission and virulence, and that plague was present on the European continent prior to the first historically documented pandemic. Finding Y. pestis in archaeological skeletons from the Bronze Era suggests that the plague has been a human companion for millennia, and that earlier outbreaks may have been much more widespread than previously thought.

Context

• Understanding the genetic evolution of Y. pestis is crucial for public health, as it helps in developing strategies to predict and control future outbreaks.

Other Perspectives

• The resolution of ancient DNA (aDNA) studies can sometimes be too coarse to pinpoint exact origins, especially when dealing with migrations and exchanges that occurred over large geographic areas and time spans.
• The interpretation of genetic data can be complex, and different research teams might draw different conclusions from the same data set, suggesting that the Central Asian origin is one hypothesis among several.
• The sample size of Bronze Era skeletons containing Y. pestis may be too small to draw definitive conclusions about the prevalence and impact of the plague in that era.
• The extrapolation of data from a limited number of archaeological sites to broader regions may not accurately reflect historical realities.

Archaeogenetics Unlocking Mysteries of Ancient Skeletons

Roberts highlights the use of archaeogenomics to uncover details about individual experiences and social dynamics in ancient communities. aDNA analysis not only allows us to understand the presence and development of pathogens, but also provides insights into individual lives and social structures.

Osteological and Molecular Evidence on St Brice's Day Massacre Victims' Experiences

Roberts describes how the skeletons from the Oxford mass grave, combined with aDNA analysis, have revealed details about the massacre on St. Brice's Day and the victims' experiences. The combination of violent injuries consistent with mass killings, burning, a lack of grave goods, and a significant number of people who ate seafood suggests that these individuals were of Scandinavian origin and were victims of an ethnically motivated attack. The story emphasizes how analyzing aDNA can illuminate social dynamics and individual experiences, complementing historical accounts and offering a new angle on history.

Practical Tips

• Engage in creative storytelling by writing a short story or creating artwork inspired by the historical events similar to those suggested by the Oxford mass grave. This can be a way to process the emotional weight of such events and share the importance of remembering and learning from history with others in a compelling and accessible format.
• Create a visual art project that represents the transformation caused by fire. Use materials like charcoal, ash, and burnt wood to create artwork on canvas or paper. This hands-on activity will give you a tangible connection to the concept of burning and its effects, which can deepen your appreciation for the historical and archaeological significance of fire-altered remains.
• Educate yourself on the history and impact of ethnic violence by reading articles and watching documentaries from diverse sources. This broadens your understanding beyond a single narrative and equips you with a more nuanced perspective on the issue, which can help foster empathy and awareness in your daily interactions.

Other Perspectives

• In some cultures, the practice of including grave goods varies and may not be a universal indicator of respect for the deceased.
• Environmental factors, such as proximity to the sea or rivers, could have influenced the diet of various groups, not just those from Scandinavia.
• The insights gained from aDNA analysis can be limited by the quality and quantity of the DNA samples, which may be degraded or contaminated, leading to incomplete or inaccurate reconstructions of past events.
• Historical accounts are often based on written records which can include biases and inaccuracies, while aDNA provides a more objective but limited type of information that might not capture the full historical context.
• Overreliance on molecular evidence might overshadow or oversimplify the complex socio-political and cultural factors that shape historical events.

Ancient Genetic Analysis Reveals Prehistoric Sex and Kinship Diversity

Roberts discusses how aDNA analysis has uncovered the presence of diverse biological sexes in prehistoric Britain, including individuals with Turner syndrome (X0) and Jacob's syndrome (XXY). This finding challenges the traditional binary perspective on sex and emphasizes the significance of genetic examination for grasping the full range of human biological variation. The Thousand Genomes from the Past initiative has uncovered kinship relationships between individuals buried in different locations, demonstrating the interconnectedness of communities and the power of aDNA analysis to reconstruct past lives.

Practical Tips

• Encourage local schools to include discussions about genetic diversity in their curriculum by donating books or resources that cover the topic. This could help foster a more inclusive understanding of human biology among students. You might select age-appropriate materials that explain genetic conditions in an accessible way, contributing to a more informed and accepting future generation.
• Create a personal challenge to use gender-neutral language in your everyday conversations for a month. This involves replacing gender-specific terms with gender-inclusive ones, such as using "they/them" pronouns when referring to someone whose gender you don't know, or opting for terms like "partner" instead of "boyfriend" or "girlfriend." Pay attention to how this changes your interactions and the reactions of those around you, and reflect on any insights gained from this experience.
• Engage with online platforms that allow you to participate in genetic research studies. By filling out surveys and potentially providing genetic information, you contribute to large-scale studies that aim to map human genetic variation. This is a way to be part of cutting-edge research and to see firsthand how your individual data fits into the broader spectrum of human genetics.
• Create a digital map of your family's migration patterns using free online mapping tools. By plotting the birthplaces and movements of your ancestors, you can visualize the geographical spread of your family over time. This can provide a visual representation of kinship and migration, similar to how genetic studies reveal movements of populations.
• Organize a 'story of us' project to capture and share the diverse histories of community members. This could be a digital collection of short videos or written narratives where individuals share their backgrounds, how they came to be part of the community, and their experiences. This initiative not only celebrates diversity but also highlights the interconnectedness through shared stories and experiences.
• Start a personal project to document your family's oral history by recording interviews with older relatives about their lives and the stories they've heard about ancestors. This can help you piece together a narrative that may align with historical events or trends you've learned about through aDNA analysis, giving a more personal context to the data.

Insights Into Disease Evolution and Epidemiology Through Scientific Study of Past Remains

This section focuses on the use of scientific techniques, including osteological analysis and aDNA, to comprehend the evolution and epidemiology of specific diseases. Roberts discusses how the skeletal remains of individuals with leprosy, Paget's disease, and syphilis offer insights into the history and progression of these afflictions, and how genetic analyses have challenged traditional narratives about their origins and spread.

Leprosy: An Illness With a Past Revealed by Bones

Roberts explores leprosy as an illness with a profound history written in the bones of those who were afflicted with it. Leprosy, caused by the bacterium Mycobacterium leprae, was widespread in medieval Europe, leading to social stigma and the establishment of leprosaria to isolate those with the disease. Roberts uses the bones from St. Mary Magdalen Hospital, Winchester, to understand the experience of leprosy and how medieval societies reacted to disease.

St Mary Magdalen Hospital's Leprosy Rate & Medieval Attitudes

Roberts discusses how the leprosy hospital at St. Mary Magdalene had a surprisingly large percentage of people in its cemetery with osteological signs of the disease. The specific nature of the bony lesions seen in those skeletons suggests that diagnosis during medieval times could be precise, and that leprosaria were indeed specifically designed to care for those suffering from the disease. Roberts argues that while leprosy was undoubtedly associated with social stigma, this perspective requires nuance. The physical setting and care offered by leprosaria suggest both care and exclusion, and historical documents reveal a complex picture, with certain theologians and clerics viewing leprosy as a sacred condition that brought its sufferers closer to God.

Context

• The study of skeletal remains from sites like St. Mary Magdalene involves archaeological and forensic techniques to identify diseases and understand historical health patterns, providing insights into the prevalence and management of diseases like leprosy.
• Leprosy primarily affects the skin, nerves, and mucous membranes, but in advanced stages, it can lead to bone deformities, which are more identifiable in skeletal remains.
• In some regions, lepers were granted certain legal protections and economic rights, such as the ability to own property or receive alms, which complicates the narrative of pure exclusion.
• Within leprosaria, patients often formed their own communities with a shared identity, which provided a sense of belonging and mutual support despite their exclusion from broader society.
• Leprosaria were not only medical facilities but also religious institutions. They often had chapels and were staffed by religious personnel, reflecting the intertwining of healthcare and spiritual care.

Analyzing Genes From Ancient Leprosy Cases: Tracing Mycobacterium Leprae Evolution and Spread

Roberts describes how genetic analyses of ancient leprosy cases have helped to understand the evolution and dissemination of Mycobacterium leprae bacteria. By sequencing ancient strains of the bacteria from artifacts, researchers have traced its origins to thousands of years ago, identifying five main branches of the bacterial family tree that map onto different geographic areas. Roberts notes how this analysis identified a rare strain of M. leprae in Europe during the medieval period, now only found in Iran and Turkey, suggesting that the spread of leprosy across the continent in the Middle Ages might be linked to contact with the Middle East.

Practical Tips

• You can explore the diversity of bacteria in your local environment by collecting samples from different areas around your home or community. Use simple swab kits available online to gather samples from soil, water, or surfaces, and send them to a service that provides DNA sequencing to identify the bacterial families present. This hands-on activity will give you a personal glimpse into the microbial diversity that surrounds you and how it might relate to the broader geographic distribution of bacteria.

Other Perspectives

• The conclusions drawn from genetic analyses of ancient leprosy cases may be influenced by contemporary biases or limitations in current scientific techniques.
• Contamination of ancient samples could lead to incorrect conclusions about the origins and evolution of Mycobacterium leprae.
• The presence of a rare strain of M. leprae in Europe that is now found in Iran and Turkey does not necessarily imply direct transmission from the Middle East; it could have arrived via indirect routes or independent introductions.

Paget's Condition: A Metabolic Disorder With Changing Prevalence

Roberts focuses on Paget's disease, a bone disorder characterized by a rise in bone turnover, first described in the 19th century. The disease causes bones to become thick, heavy, and porous, and in severe cases can lead to deformities, fractures, and even bone cancers. While the exact reason for this condition is unknown, a combination of genetics and environmental influences is believed to be involved. Roberts discusses the case study published by Sir James Paget, who believed the disease resulted from chronic inflammation. Later research has shown that it is truly a metabolic disorder, but one with an enigmatic aetiology.

High Rates of Paget's Disease in Norton Priory Skeletons Reveal Past Environmental and Genetic Factors

Roberts describes how the priory at Norton exhibited a particularly high prevalence of Paget's disease. The skeletons unearthed at the priory revealed a high prevalence of the disease, with many individuals exhibiting severe and widespread bony changes. This high prevalence suggests that genetic predisposition, combined with environmental triggers, played a significant role in the disease's emergence. Analysis of these skeletons has also shown that the medieval form of the disease appeared more serious than the contemporary version.

Context

• The findings at Norton Priory provide valuable data for archaeologists and historians studying the health and lifestyle of medieval populations.
• The disease often affects the pelvis, skull, spine, and legs. Symptoms can include bone pain, arthritis, noticeable bone deformities, and fractures.
• During medieval times, living conditions, diet, and exposure to infectious agents were vastly different from today, potentially influencing the prevalence and severity of diseases like Paget's.
• Modern diagnostic tools and treatments can manage and mitigate the disease's progression, making contemporary cases less severe compared to historical ones.

Decline in Severity of Paget's Disease Suggests Changes in Triggers or Host Susceptibility

Roberts notes how Paget's disease rates have declined significantly in recent decades, with the disease also appearing less severe in patients today. This decline indicates the potential importance of environmental factors, such as lifestyle and exposure to toxins, although why this decline is happening remains unclear. Roberts argues that studying ancient instances of Paget's disease, like those from Norton Priory, can shed light on these environmental triggers, which could have implications for understanding and managing the disease in modern populations.

Practical Tips

• Start a small fundraiser for bone disease research by organizing a community yard sale. By donating the proceeds to a bone health charity, you contribute to the ongoing research and support services that may help to further reduce the incidence of conditions like Paget's disease. This also serves as an opportunity to educate participants about the importance of funding medical research.
• Create a peer support group to share experiences and coping strategies with others facing similar health issues. By exchanging stories and tips, you can learn from each other's experiences and potentially discover ways to manage your symptoms more effectively, contributing to the perception of the disease being less severe.
• Monitor your living environment for potential sources of toxins by using a home testing kit. These kits can help you detect the presence of radon, mold, lead, and other hazardous substances in your home. Once you identify any issues, take steps to remediate them. For instance, if you discover high radon levels, you might install a radon mitigation system to reduce your exposure.
• You can track your bone health by scheduling regular check-ups with your doctor. Since the decline in Paget's disease rates is not well understood, staying proactive about your bone health can help you catch any irregularities early. For example, ask your doctor about the appropriate frequency for bone density scans, especially if you have a family history of bone diseases.
• Start a citizen science project to track health trends in your community by using a simple survey tool like Google Forms. Ask participants about prevalent health issues and their possible environmental causes, then compare your findings with historical data from public health records or historical texts. This could reveal parallels or shifts in environmental triggers over time.
• You can track your daily habits to identify potential triggers for the disease by using a simple journaling app on your phone. Start by logging your daily activities, food intake, stress levels, sleep patterns, and any symptoms you experience. Over time, you may notice patterns that correlate with flare-ups or improvements in your condition, allowing you to make informed lifestyle adjustments.

Syphilis: An Ancient Illness With a Complex History

This chapter discusses syphilis, a sexually communicable infection caused by the bacterium Treponema pallidum. It was a devastating illness during the medieval period, with its complex progression causing confusion in diagnosis. Roberts explores competing theories for its origin—the idea that it was introduced to Europe from the New World after Columbus, and the pre-Columbian hypothesis suggesting its presence in Europe before that time.

Theories and Evidence Regarding Treponemal Diseases Prior to Columbus's Arrival

Roberts notes that the sudden appearance of syphilis in Europe late in the 15th century led to the Columbian hypothesis, which proposes that it was brought back by Columbus's crew from the Americas. However, the idea that it predates Columbus argues that the illness was already present in Europe, potentially with less severe symptoms or confused with other conditions like leprosy. This debate has been challenging to resolve using historical documents and osteological analysis, as yaws and bejel, which are similar non-venereal treponemal diseases, produce similar bony lesions.

Context

• The study of ancient bones (paleopathology) is crucial in this debate, as it can reveal signs of treponemal diseases, but distinguishing between them is difficult due to similar skeletal manifestations.
• The Columbian hypothesis is part of a larger concept known as the Columbian Exchange, which refers to the widespread transfer of plants, animals, culture, human populations, technology, and diseases between the Americas and the Old World following Columbus's voyages.
• This theory suggests that syphilis was unknown in Europe before Columbus's voyages and was introduced by his crew upon their return from the New World, leading to a widespread outbreak.
• Stigma associated with certain diseases, such as leprosy, might have influenced how symptoms were reported and recorded, potentially leading to misclassification or underreporting of syphilis cases.
• Yaws is typically found in tropical regions, while bejel is more common in arid areas of the Middle East and Africa.

Genetic Insights Complicating Europe's Syphilis Origin Narrative

Roberts discusses how analyses of DNA have complicated the picture even further. While initial genomic studies seemed to support the Columbian hypothesis, with the earliest confirmed cases of Treponema pallidum pallidum DNA all from after 1493, more recent findings have challenged this. The identification of pre-Columbian treponemal DNA in European skeletons, including a potential case of T. pallidum dating to the early 15th century, has muddied the waters. Additionally, the discovery of genetic overlap between T. pallidum's subspecies, which are responsible for syphilis, yaws, and bejel, suggests a more complex evolutionary history and has led some researchers to propose the Unitarian hypothesis, that these diseases are variations of a single, flexible infection. Roberts concludes that a definitive answer to the question of the illness's origins requires more information, yet continued studies into its evolution, past and present, offer important clues for combating syphilis today.

Context

• The genetic similarities between the subspecies of Treponema pallidum complicate the task of tracing the exact origins and evolutionary path of syphilis.
• This theory proposes that syphilis, yaws, and bejel are not distinct diseases but rather variations of a single infection, adapting to different environments and human behaviors.
• Advances in genetic analysis, such as ancient DNA sequencing, have allowed scientists to study historical pathogens in ways that were not possible before, providing new insights into the evolution and spread of diseases.

Other Perspectives

• The methodology used to identify the treponemal DNA might have limitations or biases that could affect the interpretation of the results, such as the specificity of the genetic markers used to identify T. pallidum.
• The presence of similar genetic markers among the subspecies could be a result of horizontal gene transfer or convergent evolution, rather than an indication that they are variations of the same disease.
• The focus on historical and evolutionary studies might divert resources from more immediate and applied research efforts, such as vaccine development or improving treatment protocols.