PDF Summary:Augustus, by Adrian Goldsworthy

What compromises and strategic maneuverings enabled one of history's most transformative political figures—Augustus Caesar—to consolidate power over the vast Roman Empire? In this historical account by Adrian Goldsworthy, the life and reign of Augustus unfolds, tracing his ascension from the adopted heir of Julius Caesar to becoming Rome's sole ruler.

As civil wars and power struggles erupted following Caesar's assassination, Goldsworthy reveals how Augustus navigated alliances, military campaigns, and an immense program of social reforms to transition Rome from a republic to his controlled Principate. His remarkable ability to project authority while maintaining the illusion of restoring traditions allowed Augustus to reshape Rome's civic institutions and provincial governance into an enduring imperial dynasty.

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• He held multiple titles and powers, such as imperium maius (greater command) and tribunicia potestas (tribunician power), which gave him authority over military and civil matters.
• Soldiers swore oaths of allegiance directly to Augustus, rather than to the state, reinforcing their personal loyalty to him as their commander-in-chief.

Augustus' Reforms and Power Projection in Rome's Empire

This section focuses on Augustus's efforts to reshape Rome. Goldsworthy explains how the princeps carefully balances traditional institutions with personal power, crafting a new regime that ostensibly restored the Republic's lost glory while solidifying his own political dominance.

The Illusion of "Bringing Back the Republic"

Goldsworthy argues that Augustus's most remarkable political act was the masterful way he veiled his autocratic rule with the appearance of restoring the Republic. Through a series of carefully orchestrated gestures, like "relinquishing" his authority and deferring to the Senate, he concealed that he actually wielded absolute dominance, securing the support and acceptance of the aristocracy.

Relinquishing Powers and Accepting Provincial Command

In 27 BCE, Augustus staged a grand political performance. He appeared before the Senate and dramatically announced his "resignation" of all his powers, claiming to be returning the Republic to its prior state. Of course, this was a carefully calculated political move, deliberately designed to assure the senatorial elite he wasn't seeking to become a dictator like his "father." Goldsworthy emphasizes that this act was a pretense, yet it brilliantly manipulated public sentiment. Faced with the terrified pleas of the senators, Augustus reluctantly agreed to accept a ten-year proconsular command over the most unstable and militarily important provinces, providing him control of the vast majority of Rome's army. This masterful presentation allowed him to retain absolute authority while maintaining the facade of liberty.

Context

• Augustus's actions set a precedent for how future emperors would balance appearances of republican governance with autocratic control.
• After this event, Octavian was granted the title "Augustus," marking the beginning of his reign as the first Roman Emperor, though he maintained the guise of republican governance.
• The Roman Republic had been in a state of turmoil and civil war for decades before Augustus came to power. The assassination of Julius Caesar in 44 BCE and the subsequent power struggles had left the Republic weakened and unstable.
• The Senate was composed of Rome's elite, who were wary of losing their traditional power. Augustus's resignation was a strategic move to placate them, making them feel involved in governance while he maintained real control.
• While proconsular commands were not new, the scale and scope of Augustus's command were unprecedented, marking a shift in how power was concentrated in the Roman state.

Modesty and Disinclination to Dominate State Displays

Augustus reinforced the illusion of a restored Republic through a consistent (and very open) demonstration of modesty and deference to traditional institutions. He meticulously observed the proper protocols for consular precedence, reduced the annually appointed praetors, and reinstated the traditional courts (quaestiones), while simultaneously controlling who took on key roles. He was very visible in Rome, attending every Senate assembly and appearing at public festivals. His personal lifestyle was often a model of moderation and restraint, unlike the extravagance of other senators and very deliberately differing from Antony's excesses. Goldsworthy suggests that this was more a reflection of Augustus's own tastes than a desire to appease his political rivals. Even so, these actions all helped to soften the reality of his overwhelming supremacy, deflecting criticism by allowing the People and the Senate to maintain a comforting pretense of freedom.

Practical Tips

• Simplify your wardrobe by adopting a personal uniform or capsule wardrobe, which involves selecting a limited number of versatile clothing items. This approach saves time, reduces decision fatigue, and can lead to a more organized and efficient daily routine.
• Volunteer for a mock trial program to experience the roles within a traditional court setting. Participating in a mock trial, either through a community center or an educational institution, allows you to engage with the legal process in a hands-on way. You might take on the role of a juror, witness, or even a member of the court, which can offer a practical understanding of the dynamics and responsibilities within a traditional court system.
• You can evaluate your network to identify key influencers and decision-makers who can support your goals. Start by mapping out your personal and professional contacts, categorizing them based on their influence and relevance to your objectives. Then, focus on strengthening relationships with those who can help you advance, whether it's through mentorship, collaboration, or advocacy.
• Participate in cultural and community festivals to strengthen social bonds. By being present at these events, much like attending public festivals in Rome, you can connect with neighbors, learn about different cultures, and contribute to a sense of community cohesion.

Other Perspectives

• The deference to traditional institutions might have been superficial, as Augustus held substantial control over the political system, effectively undermining the autonomy of these institutions.
• The act of observing consular precedence might have been a calculated political maneuver to placate the senatorial class and reduce potential opposition to his rule.
• While Augustus may have lived a lifestyle of moderation and restraint in comparison to his contemporaries like Antony, it is possible that his lifestyle was still luxurious by the standards of the average Roman citizen.
• The idea of modesty is subjective and culturally relative; what was considered modest in Augustus's time might not align with modern interpretations of modesty.
• The notion of maintaining a pretense of freedom implies a level of deception, but it is possible that the People and the Senate willingly accepted Augustus's supremacy in exchange for stability and peace after years of civil war, rather than being deceived by a facade of modesty.

The Unprecedented Honors and Powers Bestowed on Augustus

Despite his carefully cultivated image of being restrained, Augustus amassed a range of unprecedented powers and honors. Goldsworhty explains how the Senate enthusiastically showered him with awards and privileges, solidifying his unique and unchallenged position in the political landscape of Rome.

Cognomen "Augustus" and Its Religious Significance

In 27 BC, the Senate, through a seemingly spontaneous act of gratitude, bestowed upon Caesar the cognomen Augustus, a name of significant cultural and spiritual meaning. It invoked the ancient "august augury" tied to Rome's origins and suggested that its recipient was divinely chosen. Nobody in Rome had previously been granted such an honor. Goldsworthy emphasizes how the name cemented Augustus's special status, elevating him beyond mere mortals and setting him apart from any competitor.

Context

• The term "Augustus" was derived from the Latin word "augere," meaning to increase or to honor. It was associated with religious rites and conveyed a sense of reverence and sanctity.
• The name suggested a new era of peace and prosperity, often referred to as the Pax Romana, which Augustus was credited with initiating.
• Augury was an ancient Roman practice of interpreting the will of the gods by observing the flight patterns of birds. It was a crucial part of Roman religion and decision-making, often used to guide political and military actions.
• The idea of being divinely chosen was a powerful political tool in ancient Rome. Leaders often claimed divine support to legitimize their rule and decisions, reinforcing their authority and discouraging opposition.
• In ancient Rome, names were highly structured, typically consisting of a praenomen (given name), nomen (clan name), and cognomen (family branch or personal nickname). The addition of a unique cognomen like "Augustus" was unprecedented, marking a significant departure from traditional naming practices.

Bestowal of Proconsular Power and Tribunician Authority

Following the award of the name Augustus, he was given a ten-year command (renewed continually for the rest of his life) over the provinces that contained most of the Roman legions. In 23 BC, after a serious illness, he resigned the consulship, but was granted other even more unusual powers, notably tribunician power and proconsular imperium that was superior to all other proconsuls. Goldsworthy underscores that although Augustus received these awards in a personal capacity, not as a magistrate, they weren't time-bound and were effectively permanent.

Context

• These provinces were strategically important and often located on the empire's frontiers, such as Gaul, Spain, and Syria. Control over these areas allowed Augustus to secure the empire's borders and manage potential threats.
• This power was traditionally held by the tribunes of the plebs, who were officials elected to protect the rights of the common people. It included the right to veto actions by other magistrates and propose legislation, making it a significant tool for influence and control.

The Reorganization of Magistracies and the Senate

This section analyzes Augustus's efforts to reform the Senate and magistracies, aiming to restore the prestige and efficiency of these institutions after years of neglect and disruption.

Reducing the Senate and Restoring Prestige

Augustus, wielding censorial powers, purged the senatorial ranks, removing hundreds of unsuitable members and reducing its size to 600. Goldsworthy highlights how this action aimed to restore the dignity of the Senate, compromised by the rapid enrollment of unqualified supporters during the era of the triumvirate. The focus was on ensuring that senators met strict standards of wealth, reputation, and ancestry, restoring the traditional image of a prestigious and respected body.

Practical Tips

• Use the concept of selective association in your consumption of media and information. Just as Augustus curated the senatorial ranks, curate your sources of information. Make a conscious effort to follow news outlets, podcasts, and authors that provide value and align with your intellectual and ethical standards. This selective approach will help you build a more refined and focused understanding of the world around you, leading to better-informed decisions and opinions.
• Enhance your decision-making process by creating a 'Senate of Advisors', a personal board of trusted individuals whose opinions you value. Choose a diverse group of friends, family members, or colleagues who can offer different perspectives. When faced with important decisions, consult this group for their insights, ensuring that you're considering multiple viewpoints and not just relying on your own biases.
• You can evaluate the efficiency of your own group projects by intentionally limiting the number of participants. For instance, if you're working on a community project or a group assignment, propose a cap on the number of active members and observe if this streamlines decision-making and task completion.
• Implement a peer recognition program to celebrate contributions that enhance group dignity. This could be as simple as a monthly acknowledgment in a newsletter, a small token of appreciation, or a dedicated time during meetings where team members can highlight others' efforts that have supported the group's values and dignity. This not only restores dignity to individuals but also reinforces the behavior that contributes to a dignified environment.
• Start a peer-mentoring group within your community or workplace with a focus on developing skills that are crucial for leadership roles. By doing so, you create an environment where aspiring leaders can grow and be evaluated on their merit, which can later inform decisions about promotions or leadership positions. This initiative can serve as a small-scale model for how to maintain the integrity of a prestigious group by ensuring that members are qualified and capable.
• Establish a set of personal standards that align with those of historical senators, such as a savings goal (wealth), volunteering for a reputable cause (reputation), or researching your family history (ancestry). By setting these goals, you create a roadmap for personal growth. For instance, aim to save a certain amount of money within a year, commit to a monthly volunteer schedule, or start a family tree project.
• Dress for success by curating a wardrobe that reflects the traditional image of prestige you aspire to embody. This doesn't mean wearing expensive clothes but choosing attire that is appropriate, well-fitting, and timeless, showing that you value yourself and by extension, command respect from others.

Annual Consuls and Suffect Consul Appointments

After a decade of annual consulships, Augustus relinquished the role. For the subsequent ten years, two consuls completed full terms, chosen mainly from the traditional aristocracy. This change, according to Goldsworthy, was motivated not simply by Augustus's wish for a properly constituted Republic, but also addressed practical concerns. It prevented any individual from gaining significant power independently of Augustus. However, this move did not diminish Augustus's power, as he still managed the process by choosing suitable candidates and influencing elections.

Context

• In addition to the two main consuls, suffect consuls could be appointed to replace those who vacated their position before the end of their term. This allowed for flexibility and ensured that the government continued to function smoothly.
• This refers to the patrician class, the elite families of Rome who traditionally held political power. They were often wealthy landowners with significant influence over Roman politics and society.
• By controlling consul appointments, Augustus prevented any single individual from amassing enough power to challenge his authority, maintaining his dominance over Roman politics.

Augustus' Control of the Army and Provinces

This section examines how Augustus reorganized Rome's military and assumed direct control of its most crucial provinces, securing his political dominance and ensuring the stability of the empire.

Legion Demobilization and Resettlement of Veterans

Following the conflict at Actium, Augustus faced the challenge of demobilizing a vast army, inflated by the civil wars. Realizing the potential for instability if neglected, he undertook a massive program of land redistribution, providing veterans with farmland in colonies across the empire. Goldsworthy emphasizes how this scheme, though fraught with social implications for dispossessed landowners, effectively decreased the army's numbers, secured veterans' loyalty and their votes in the Assemblies, and helped stabilize the provinces.

Context

• The civil wars resulted in the recruitment of large numbers of soldiers, often beyond the standard size of the Roman legions, as leaders sought to outmatch their opponents, leading to an unsustainable number of troops once peace was restored.
• Providing farmland to veterans helped integrate them into civilian life and stimulated local economies by increasing agricultural production and trade.
• After a war, demobilizing soldiers involves transitioning them from military to civilian life. This often includes providing them with resources or opportunities to ensure they can support themselves, reducing the likelihood of unrest or rebellion.
• Roman soldiers, upon retirement, were often granted full Roman citizenship if they did not already possess it. This status was crucial as it conferred the right to vote, a privilege not extended to all inhabitants of the Roman Empire.
• By securing the loyalty of veterans through land grants, Augustus ensured a stable base of support that could influence local politics and maintain order in the provinces.
• The introduction of new settlers could disrupt existing communities, leading to cultural clashes and a breakdown of traditional social structures, as veterans often came from different regions with different customs.

Army Organization and Establishment of the Praetorian Guard

Augustus, pragmatic as always, retained a standing army of around 26 or 27 legions. Most likely, many of these were initially below full strength; nevertheless, their combined total was still greater than any force led by a Roman leader before then. As well as reducing expenditures, he also restructured the service conditions and introduced new regulations to minimize the potential for mutiny and ensure that these soldiers remained faithful to him. He also established the nine cohorts of the praetorian guard, an elite force directly under his authority. While only three cohorts routinely remained in Rome, they became a visible symbol of his influence, and their numbers would increase steadily until, under Tiberius, they acquired their own barracks in the City. Goldsworthy explains that these reforms effectively limited the military opportunities available to other senators and fundamentally placed the army under Augustus's command.

Practical Tips

• Apply the principle of strategic reserve by keeping a portion of your resources, such as time or money, unallocated and ready to deploy when unexpected opportunities or emergencies arise. This mirrors the strategic flexibility that a commander would have by not committing all forces to the front lines. For instance, set aside a few hours each week as "strategic reserve time" to use for unplanned tasks, last-minute projects, or self-care as needed.
• Create a personal readiness checklist for new endeavors, similar to how a legion would prepare for battle. This checklist should include physical items, skills, knowledge, and mental preparedness. Before embarking on a new challenge, run through your checklist to ensure you're fully equipped to handle it.
• Use the concept of "greater force" to organize your personal resources for a project. Just as Augustus amassed a large number of legions, you can gather all available resources before starting a significant personal endeavor. For example, if you're planning a home renovation, compile a comprehensive list of materials, tools, contacts, and budget estimates before beginning work to ensure you have a "greater force" at your disposal.
• Create a personal reward system to incentivize your daily tasks. Taking inspiration from the idea of service conditions, establish rewards for completing certain tasks or reaching milestones. These could be as simple as taking a break to enjoy a favorite hobby after a block of focused work or planning a small weekend getaway after a month of achieving your set goals.
• Develop a feedback loop with your colleagues to address grievances before they escalate. Set up regular one-on-one meetings or anonymous suggestion boxes that encourage team members to voice concerns. Actively listen and follow up on the feedback, making changes where necessary or explaining why certain things cannot be altered. This open communication can prevent discontent from festuring and reduce the risk of collective dissatisfaction.
• Create a loyalty feedback loop in your team by regularly acknowledging individual contributions and linking them to the team's success. By doing this, you foster a sense of belonging and importance among team members, which can increase their loyalty to you as a leader. For example, after completing a project, send out a team-wide email highlighting each person's unique contribution and how it played a crucial role in achieving the team's goals.
• Develop a layered security strategy for your digital life, inspired by the structure of the praetorian guard. Start with basic antivirus software as your first 'cohort,' then add a password manager as the second, and so on, until you have nine layers of security, including things like two-factor authentication, encrypted backups, and a VPN.
• Develop a specialized skill set that aligns with your interests and career goals, akin to the specialized training of the Praetorian Guard. Identify areas where you want to excel, and then dedicate time each week to learning and practicing these skills. This could involve online courses, mentorship, or self-study. Over time, you'll build a personal "elite force" of capabilities that can advance your career and personal life.
• Implement the "three cohort" strategy in your weekly planning by selecting three main priorities or goals to focus on. This approach draws inspiration from the focused allocation of the praetorian guard and can help you concentrate your efforts on what's most important, avoiding the spread of your energy across too many tasks.
• Develop a signature project or initiative at work that showcases your unique skills and leadership. Think of it as your version of the Praetorian Guard, something that is closely associated with you and demonstrates your impact. For example, you could spearhead a volunteer program, a new efficiency protocol, or an innovative client outreach strategy. Ensure it aligns with your strengths and becomes synonymous with your contribution to the organization.
• Apply the principle of steady growth to your fitness routine by adding a few minutes or one extra exercise to your workout each week. Just as the praetorian guard numbers grew steadily, your endurance and strength can increase gradually, making it more sustainable and less intimidating than a drastic fitness overhaul.
• Use the principle of centralization to organize your digital files by creating a single, dedicated digital folder for important documents. This mirrors the idea of the praetorian guard having a centralized location, making it easier for you to find and manage your critical information efficiently.
• Explore alternative career paths by researching industries that have undergone similar reforms and noting the new roles that emerged. For instance, if military opportunities were limited for senators, look into how the healthcare industry adapted when regulations changed, leading to new positions like healthcare compliance specialists. This can provide insights into how to pivot your career in the face of industry changes.
• Create a "chain of command" for your household tasks to improve efficiency. Assign specific responsibilities to family members, much like military ranks, to ensure that everyone knows their duties and how they contribute to the overall functioning of the home. This could involve creating a chore chart that clearly delineates who is in charge of what tasks each week, thereby reducing confusion and increasing accountability.

Provincial Establishment and Appointment of Governors

Augustus categorized the provinces into two primary groups: those directly under his command and control and those formally entrusted to the authority of the Senate. The former consistently contained most of Rome's military, while the latter were mostly garrisoned only by auxiliary troops. Governors were appointed for periods of up to ten years at a time—though in practice, this was often considerably shorter—and, similar to Augustus's control over the size, shape, and composition of the army, he also had power over appointing those who led it. In several regions, his legates leading a provincial army managed the formation of new provinces. Goldsworthy draws particular attention to Augustus's unusual decision from very early on to govern Egypt through an equestrian prefect rather than a senator.

Practical Tips

• Apply a dual management approach to your email inbox by categorizing emails into those that require your immediate attention and those that can be handled by setting up rules or filters. For example, emails from your boss or key clients can be tagged for direct action, while newsletters or less urgent correspondence can be automatically sorted into folders for later review. This helps you stay on top of critical communications and manage your time more effectively.
• Use the concept of variable terms to manage your long-term goals. Break down your objectives into smaller phases with their own 'terms of office.' After each phase, assess your progress and adjust your strategies as needed, ensuring that you stay flexible and responsive to changing circumstances.
• Create a visual timeline of significant events in your personal or family history, akin to the creation of new provinces. This activity helps you recognize the pivotal moments that have defined your own 'territory' or life journey. You might include events like moving to a new city, starting a new job, or other milestones that have expanded your personal 'provinces' of experience and knowledge.

Other Perspectives

• The distinction between Augustus-controlled and Senate-controlled provinces may have been more political and administrative in nature rather than strictly military, with the actual control of troops being more nuanced.

The Projection of Augustus's Impact and Authority

This section examines how Augustus utilized grand construction projects, artistic patronage, and the celebration of peace and prosperity to create a lasting image of himself and the regime he created, effectively projecting his power and authority beyond Rome.

Rome's Construction Projects and New Forum Establishment

Augustus, aided by Agrippa and others, embarked on a massive building program in the City of Rome. Temples and other public buildings were restored as an intentional reflection of Roman tradition and piety, damaged roads and aqueducts repaired to ease communications and supply food to the capital, and new monuments built to celebrate the glories of the princeps and his family. Most notably, he created a new forum named after himself, which housed the Mars Ultor Temple and a parade of statues honoring the most esteemed individuals in Rome's past. Goldsworthy argues that, both in scale and concept, these projects surpassed those of any previous Roman leader and were deliberately intended to proclaim Augustus as the second founder of Rome, the man who brought the state peace and prosperity after decades of chaos.

Context

• The restoration projects were part of a broader cultural renaissance that Augustus promoted, known as the Augustan Age. This period was marked by a revival of arts, literature, and architecture, reflecting a return to classical ideals.
• Aqueducts were vital for supplying water to urban centers, supporting public baths, fountains, and private households. This infrastructure was essential for maintaining public health and sanitation in densely populated areas like Rome.
• The monuments often featured innovative architectural techniques and styles, showcasing Roman engineering prowess and setting new standards for public buildings.
• The Forum of Augustus was one of the Imperial Fora of Rome, constructed to provide additional space for legal proceedings and public business, as the existing Roman Forum had become overcrowded.
• By naming the forum after himself and emphasizing his role in its creation, Augustus ensured that his contributions would be remembered and celebrated by future generations, solidifying his legacy.
• The Temple of Mars Ultor (Mars the Avenger) symbolized Augustus' role as the avenger of Caesar's assassination and the restorer of Rome's honor and stability.

Arts Patronage, Poets Vergil and Horace's Association

Augustus, emulating Maecenas, actively cultivated close relationships with the leading literary figures of that era. He provided them with financial and material rewards, encouraging them to produce works of literary excellence which celebrated Rome and its traditions, often more specifically extolling Augustus's accomplishments as well as those of his family. Goldsworthy emphasizes that this support did not mean the princeps dictated the content or tone of these works, noting that much of Horace's poetry was concerned with themes such as love and camaraderie, with only occasionally and rather obliquely praising Augustus, his triumph, and the ensuing peace.

Other Perspectives

• There is a risk that the works produced under such patronage could be perceived as propaganda, especially if they frequently celebrate the patron or their interests.
• The celebration of Rome and its traditions through these works may not have fully represented the diversity and complexity of Roman society, including the voices and experiences of those outside the elite circles.
• The rarity of direct criticism or opposition to Augustus in the works of these poets might indicate that there was an unspoken understanding of the consequences of displeasing the emperor.
• The focus on love and camaraderie in Horace's poetry does not preclude a critical or nuanced approach to Augustus's rule; the absence of overt criticism does not necessarily imply endorsement or support.

Augustus the Unifying Leader and Peace Celebrant

Augustus used monumental building projects, public festivals, and the promotion of a unified official historical narrative to portray himself as a unifying leader and the architect of enduring harmony following many years of conflict. This message was skillfully reinforced by poetry, which evoked the glories of Rome's past and linked them to the achievements that had come—and would come—under Augustus' guidance. Rituals like the Secular Games celebrated rejuvenation and pledged a Rome under the leadership of Augustus and his family would have an even more magnificent future.

Practical Tips

• Host a themed gathering or virtual event that celebrates a topic of widespread interest, such as a cultural heritage month or an environmental awareness day. Use this event to weave a narrative of unity by highlighting shared values and common goals. Encourage storytelling among participants to create a collective historical narrative that includes diverse perspectives and strengthens community bonds.
• Host a storytelling dinner with friends or family where everyone shares their past and future through stories and poems. Encourage guests to prepare a short narrative or poem that connects a proud moment from their past to their current endeavors and dreams for the future. This not only helps you practice this art but also fosters a sense of community and shared aspirations.

Augustus' Campaigns, Administration, and Imperial Expansion

This section addresses Augustus's strategies for military endeavors and his approach to imperial expansion. Goldsworthy analyzes his campaigns, emphasizing the crucial contributions of capable subordinates, while also exploring the princeps's careful management of provincial governance, diplomacy, and the complexities of Romanization.

Military Strategy and Dependence on Capable Subordinates

Goldsworthy argues that Augustus, while presented as Imperator and hailed as victor, was in truth a cautious commander who readily admitted the need to rely on gifted subordinates for conducting military operations, especially later in life. He highlights how this delegation of command didn't weaken Augustus's supremacy, since he personally directed the military and its leaders.

Appointing Agrippa and Tiberius to Lead Important Missions

Augustus delegated major commands to his close associates, trusting Agrippa to conduct campaigns against Sextus Pompeius, and later Tiberius to crush rebellions in Illyricum and Germany. Goldsworthy details how these appointments not only eased the burdens on Augustus but also provided opportunities for his associates to prove their worth. These actions, characteristic of Augustus's pragmatic approach, aimed to ensure both military successes and the loyalty of his most capable men.

Context

• The late 1st century BCE and early 1st century CE were periods of consolidation for the Roman Empire, requiring strong military leadership to secure its borders.
• Tiberius, who would later become the second Roman emperor, was Augustus's stepson. His military leadership in Illyricum and Germany helped secure the empire's borders and demonstrated his capability as a leader, setting the stage for his eventual succession.
• Sextus Pompeius was a Roman general and the last focus of opposition to the Second Triumvirate. His control of Sicily and threat to Rome's grain supply made him a significant adversary, necessitating a strong military response.

Victories' Role in Upholding Augustus's Standing and Authority

Military victories, whether won personally by Augustus or delegated to his generals, were crucial to maintaining his reputation and authority. Defeats, though rare, significantly harmed his reputation. Goldsworthy analyzes Augustus's keen awareness of how military successes influenced his reputation, as he skillfully cultivated his image as Imperator, utilizing victories to reinforce his position as supreme leader and the protector of Roman peace and security.

Other Perspectives

• The reliance on military victories to uphold authority could be critiqued as a short-term strategy that risked creating a cycle of continuous warfare, which might not have been sustainable or desirable for the Roman state in the long term.
• The influence of military successes on Augustus's reputation might be overstated, considering that some of his contemporaries, such as Marcus Agrippa, played significant roles in those victories, suggesting that Augustus's reputation was bolstered by the competence of his subordinates as well.

Choice to Forego Aggressive Expansion in Parthian and British Territories

Augustus, despite widespread support for expanding the empire, prudently resisted aggressive conquest against Parthia and Britain. He understood the logistical difficulties and the potential for disaster, choosing instead to consolidate existing boundaries—or to frame this decision as his strategy. Goldsworthy explains how this cautious approach was likely motivated by wanting to avoid risky ventures and focus on internal stability and governing, not a lack of ambition or pacifistic ideals.

Practical Tips

• Practice saying "no" to opportunities that don't align with your core values or long-term vision. This can be as simple as declining invitations to events that don't interest you or turning down projects that don't contribute to your overarching goals. By doing so, you create space for activities and commitments that are more meaningful and impactful for you, much like Augustus's decision to focus on consolidating rather than expanding his empire.
• Develop a habit of conducting "pre-mortem" assessments for your projects to anticipate possible failures and plan accordingly. Before starting a new project, like organizing a community fundraiser, sit down and imagine it has failed. Then work backward to identify what could lead to that failure, such as lack of interest or insufficient marketing, and create strategies to mitigate those risks.
• Enhance your personal finances by reviewing and maximizing your existing assets. Rather than seeking new investment opportunities, take time to assess and improve your current portfolio's performance. This could involve rebalancing your investments, reducing fees, or increasing contributions to your retirement account to ensure you're making the most of what you already have.
• Implement a "decision audit" process where you periodically review past decisions to evaluate their impact on your internal stability. For each significant decision, ask yourself whether it contributed to or detracted from your sense of stability and why. Use these insights to inform future decisions, aiming to consistently choose options that reinforce your internal governance.
• Develop a "Venture Simulation Game" with friends or family where you role-play different business scenarios with varying degrees of risk. This game could involve fake currency and business decisions that mimic real-life situations. By engaging in this game, you can experience the consequences of risky decisions in a controlled, no-stakes environment, which can inform your real-world choices.

Why Gaul Mattered to Rome

This section explores the significance of Gaul within the Roman Empire, focusing on the process of Romanization and the challenges of integrating newly conquered regions into the existing imperial system.

Creation of Colonies and Romanization of Gallia Narbonensis

Gallia Narbonensis, originally Transalpine Gaul, was among the earliest and most Romanized provinces in Gaul. Goldsworthy describes how the establishment of veteran colonies, combined with the existing infrastructure and the willingness of local elites to adopt Roman culture, facilitated a relatively smooth integration into the empire. He notes that, by the conclusion of Augustus's reign, Gallia Narbonensis was frequently considered almost Italian.

Context

• Gallia Narbonensis was located in what is now southern France, along the Mediterranean coast. Its strategic position made it a crucial link between Italy and the Iberian Peninsula.
• Over time, the blending of Roman and local cultures led to a unique provincial identity that was heavily influenced by Roman ideals, language, and religion.
• Unlike other parts of Gaul, which were more resistant to Romanization, Gallia Narbonensis embraced Roman culture more fully, leading to its perception as almost Italian.

Challenges Of Administering the "Three Gauls"

Augustus faced more significant challenges in integrating the areas of Aquitania, Lugdunensis, and Belgica due to their recent conquest and less developed Roman influence. Goldsworthy emphasizes how Augustus, despite promoting local autonomy, still aimed to control the process.

Practical Tips

• Start a book club focused on historical fiction set in periods of cultural integration. This can provide a narrative understanding of the complexities involved in merging different societies. Choose books that depict the integration of cultures in various historical contexts, such as colonial periods or during the expansion of empires, and discuss the parallels and differences with the Roman conquests.

Public Works and Construction of Roads to Improve Trade

The establishment of an extensive road network, alongside existing waterways, facilitated trade and communication throughout Gaul, enabling the flow of goods and reinforcing Roman economic and cultural influence. The author explains how these measures, while primarily serving the needs of Rome's military and ensuring its supply lines, also had far-reaching economic and social impacts on the Gauls, encouraging urbanization and adopting Roman practices.

Context

• Roman roads included milestones that provided distances and directions, and way stations (mansiones) that offered rest and resupply points for travelers and merchants, enhancing the efficiency of long-distance travel.
• Although primarily built for military purposes, the roads ensured rapid deployment of troops, which helped maintain peace and stability, indirectly supporting economic activities.
• The ease of travel facilitated by roads encouraged migration from rural to urban areas, as people sought opportunities in growing towns and cities.
• The construction and maintenance of roads created jobs for local populations, which could lead to increased wealth and social mobility for some Gauls.

The Romanization of Spain and the Conquering of the Cantabrians

This section examines the process of Romanization in Spain, highlighting the challenges of incorporating the Cantabri and Astures, how veteran settlements contributed, and the effects of Roman administration.

Augustus' Efforts to Pacify and Incorporate Iberians

Spain, a longstanding area of Roman involvement, presented the emperor Augustus the challenge of integrating the fiercely independent Cantabrians and Asturians into the empire. Goldsworthy analyzes how he achieved this through a combination of armed strength, veteran settlement, and the careful cultivation of existing power structures, ultimately aiming to secure the long-term stability and economic viability of the region.

Context

• Augustus personally oversaw military campaigns known as the Cantabrian Wars (29-19 BCE), which were crucial in subduing these tribes and were among the last major military operations in the Roman conquest of Hispania.
• The Cantabrians and Asturians were known for their guerrilla tactics, utilizing the rugged terrain to their advantage, which required a prolonged military campaign by the Romans.
• The presence of Roman veterans and their families encouraged intermarriage and cultural exchange with local populations, gradually assimilating the Iberians into Roman society and reducing resistance to Roman rule.

Spain's Economic Development and Urban Growth

Following the conquest of the Cantabrians and Asturians, Augustus promoted economic and urban development in Spain, founding veteran colonies and encouraging the construction of Roman-style cities, roads, and public amenities. This fostered the production of goods for export to other parts of the empire, integrating the region into the wider Roman economic system. Goldsworthy illustrates how these measures, though primarily driven by a desire for stability and state revenue, shaped the economic and social landscape, fueling urbanization and promoting the embracing of Roman cultural and administrative practices.

Context

• These cities were designed with a grid layout, featuring forums, temples, and amphitheaters, reflecting Roman architectural and cultural values. This urban planning facilitated administrative control and cultural assimilation.
• The Roman government imposed taxes on goods, which incentivized the production of exportable commodities to meet these obligations and generate revenue.
• Spain's natural resources, such as silver and olive oil, became crucial exports, contributing to the Roman economy and increasing the region's economic importance.
• The economic changes and urban growth contributed to new social dynamics, including the emergence of a wealthier merchant class and increased social stratification, as wealth and power became concentrated in urban centers.
• The presence of Roman legions provided security, making urban areas safer and more appealing for settlers and traders.

Roman Culture and Indigenous Traditions: Colonies and Integration

Despite promoting Romanization, Augustus avoided forcing a complete break with traditional customs. Indigenous religions and practices, provided they didn't directly challenge Roman control, were generally tolerated. Goldsworthy explains that Augustus sought to create a hybrid culture, blending Roman institutions and laws with existing social structures, aiming to create a stable and prosperous imperial province.

Context

• By allowing indigenous religions to continue, Augustus avoided alienating local populations, which helped maintain peace and stability in the provinces.
• Maintaining local religious practices could also have economic benefits, as religious festivals and traditions often played a significant role in local economies.
• Romanization involved the spread of Roman culture, language, and infrastructure, such as roads and aqueducts, which facilitated trade and communication, contributing to the stability and prosperity of provinces.

Governance of Eastern Provinces and Kingdoms of Clients

This section explores Augustus's management of the diverse eastern provinces, balancing Roman interests with the maintenance of local customs, utilizing client rulers as allies, and skillfully employing diplomacy to maintain peace and security.

Ensuring Revenue From Eastern Territories Through Tranquility and Protection

Following decades of civil unrest and Parthian incursions, the eastern provinces craved stability. Augustus, understanding the importance of ensuring continued income from these wealthy regions, focused on establishing stability and promoting economic recovery. He prioritized the appointment of capable and experienced governors (proconsuls or his own legates), tasked with both maintaining order and ensuring efficient tax collection, while taking personal care to address the needs and concerns of the people and individuals making pleas to him.

Practical Tips

• Start a neighborhood barter system to promote economic exchange without the need for currency. This can be as simple as setting up a social media group where neighbors exchange goods and services, from homegrown vegetables to tutoring sessions. This initiative mirrors the idea of stimulating economic recovery by facilitating trade and resource-sharing within a community.
• Start a neighborhood watch program to enhance the safety and protection of your local community. By collaborating with neighbors to keep an eye out for suspicious activities and reporting them to authorities, you contribute to the tranquility of the area, which can improve property values and attract businesses, echoing the stability Augustus sought for economic gain.

Local Elites' Role and Importance of Good Client Ruler Relationships

Augustus fostered the loyalty of the local elites in the eastern provinces, granting them citizenship, supporting their participation in Roman institutions, and motivating them to take on administrative roles within their communities. Goldsworthy highlights Augustus's skillful cultivation of positive relationships with client rulers like King Herod, who were granted considerable autonomy within their realms but relied on Roman backing to maintain their authority and deal with political rivals.

Other Perspectives

• The motivation of local elites to take on administrative roles might have been driven by their desire for personal gain and status rather than a commitment to the welfare of their communities.
• The term "positive relationships" could be misleading, as it implies a degree of equality and genuine goodwill that may not have been present; these relationships were often pragmatic and based on the necessity of maintaining Roman authority and stability in the region.
• The autonomy of client rulers could be seen as a strategic move by Rome to reduce direct administrative responsibilities and military commitments rather than a genuine grant of self-governance.

Diplomacy to Ease Parthian Tensions and Recover Legionary Eagles

Augustus, prioritizing stability over risky ventures, employed diplomacy to defuse tensions with Parthia. Realizing that the recovery of military standards lost by Crassus and Antony would be hailed as a major victory, he skillfully negotiated with the king of Parthia, securing their return while avoiding an expensive and potentially disastrous war. Goldsworthy explains that Augustus, masterful in presenting this diplomatic success as a triumph of Roman power, cleverly manipulated public sentiment and strengthened his own image as a warrior-statesman.

Practical Tips

• You can create a "Stability Over Risk" journal where you document daily decisions, focusing on those that favor long-term stability. For example, instead of investing in a high-risk stock, you might choose a low-risk savings account and note the decision and your reasoning. This practice will help you become more aware of your decision-making patterns and encourage a stability-first mindset.
• Start a peer mediation group at your workplace or community center. Train members in basic diplomacy and conflict resolution techniques, then offer to mediate minor disputes among colleagues or neighbors. This initiative can foster a more harmonious environment and give you practical experience in diplomacy.
• Create a "Lost and Found" community board online: Set up a digital platform where community members can post about personal or historical items that have been lost and then found. This could range from family heirlooms to local artifacts. The platform would serve as a modern-day recovery of valuable items, echoing the significance of retrieving lost military standards. It would also foster a sense of community and shared history.
• Develop a personal "eagles" project by identifying something of value you've lost or given up on, such as a hobby or a relationship, and create a step-by-step plan to reclaim it. Use tactful communication and mutual benefits as your tools, just as Augustus did, to re-establish connections or rekindle your interest in a past passion.
• You can avoid unnecessary conflicts at work by proposing win-win solutions during negotiations. When faced with a disagreement or potential conflict, actively seek a compromise that benefits both parties. For example, if you and a coworker disagree on a project approach, suggest a hybrid strategy that incorporates both of your ideas.
• When volunteering for a cause, position your efforts as part of a larger movement for social change. Instead of highlighting your personal sacrifices or work, create blog posts or videos that show how your actions are part of a broader trend of civic engagement and public spirit, inspiring others to see the collective impact rather than individual deeds.
• Enhance your professional reputation by mastering a new skill that's in demand within your industry. By becoming proficient in something that's currently sought after, such as a new software tool or a foreign language, you can position yourself as both a learner and a leader. For example, if you work in marketing, learning how to use the latest data analytics software could make you the go-to person for insights on customer behavior.

Augustus' Treatment of Subject Peoples

This section examines how Augustus interacted with subject peoples, demonstrating his understanding of the need to balance practical necessities with a respect for local customs, while reinforcing Roman dominance.

Local Customs & Civic Autonomy

Goldsworthy argues that although Augustus promoted Roman institutions and legal systems, he readily granted considerable autonomy to provincial communities, allowing them to manage local affairs with limited interference. The princeps and his family encouraged the building of temples and other monuments, providing civic amenities and entertainment, often in traditional styles which combined Roman designs and materials with Hellenistic elements. He also respected local traditions and religions, choosing to regulate rather than eradicate customs like the druidic cult in Gaul.

Other Perspectives

• The autonomy of provincial communities was conditional and could be revoked or altered at any time if their actions were perceived as a threat to Roman interests or the emperor's authority.
• The concept of "limited interference" is relative and could still involve significant control over critical aspects of governance, such as taxation, military recruitment, and the administration of justice.
• The construction of temples and monuments in traditional styles may have been less about cultural sensitivity and more about creating a sense of continuity and stability within the empire.
• While Augustus and his family did encourage the building of civic amenities and entertainment, it is possible that the actual resources for these projects often came from local elites or communities, who were expected to demonstrate their loyalty and wealth by funding such constructions.
• The regulation of customs like the druidic cult in Gaul suggests that Augustus did not fully respect local traditions, as true respect would imply allowing them to continue without interference or alteration.
• The perspective of the local populations affected by these regulations is not addressed; they might have perceived Roman regulation as intrusive or oppressive, even if it was not outright eradication.

Granting Citizenship and Rewarding Devoted Subjects

Augustus strategically employed generosity when dealing with subject peoples. Local aristocrats who demonstrated loyalty to Rome were rewarded with citizenship, and frequently with the honorary name of Julius after the princeps or, upon his death, that of Augustus after his successor. He also encouraged them to serve as officers in the army and to adopt a Roman education and lifestyle for their sons, although more often than not this combined Latin elements with those of the existing Greek culture. This linked them to him and, therefore, the state. Goldsworthy notes how these actions fostered a sense of loyalty, integrating native elites into the Roman system and creating a network of supporters invested in the success of the empire as well as its princeps.

Other Perspectives

• The emphasis on rewarding local aristocrats does not necessarily reflect a genuine integration of diverse cultures but rather a co-optation of local elites to maintain Roman hegemony.
• The strategy of assimilation through military and educational means might not be as effective in fostering genuine loyalty as it is in creating a superficial appearance of allegiance.
• Granting citizenship and rewards to native elites could have also created divisions within local societies, as those not granted such privileges might have felt disenfranchised or resentful.
• This approach assumes that the interests of the empire and its princeps are always aligned, which may not have been the case if the princeps acted in ways that were detrimental to the broader interests of the empire.

Augustus' Influence: Transition From Roman Republic to Principate and Julio-Claudian Dynasty

This section addresses the lasting influence of Augustus' reign, analyzing the transition from Republic to Principate, the emergence of the Julio-Claudian dynasty, and the enduring legacy of the princeps whose name and ideals shaped Roman government for centuries to come.

Augustus' Ascent and Acceptance of His Power

Goldsworthy argues that, having attained supreme power, Augustus maintained it through using both force, skillful diplomacy, and a carefully cultivated public image. The failed conspiracies against him demonstrated both the discontent among some sections of society and the princeps' ruthlessness in dealing with such threats.

Failed Attempts to Overthrow Augustus

Despite the general acceptance of Augustus's rule, some conspiracies were hatched to overthrow him. Goldsworthy describes how the plots, poorly organised and swiftly exposed, highlight Augustus's efficient network of espionage and intelligence agents, and his determination to crush any challenge to his authority, making any attempt at rebellion a dangerous enterprise. Even so, the princeps for years continued to fret about assassination and was careful of his security whenever possible.

Context

• The loyalty of the Roman legions to Augustus was a crucial factor in the failure of plots, as the military was a key power base and any successful conspiracy would have required substantial military backing.
• Without modern technology, Augustus's network relied heavily on human intelligence and communication, such as messengers and coded letters, to relay information quickly and discreetly.
• Augustus was known for his harsh punitive measures against conspirators, which served as a deterrent to potential rebels. The severe consequences of failure made rebellion a high-risk endeavor.
• The constant threat of assassination could have had a psychological impact on Augustus, contributing to a persistent state of vigilance and anxiety about his personal safety.
• His residences, such as the House of Augustus on the Palatine Hill, were strategically located and designed with security in mind, including limited access points.

Contrasting Tiberius's Governance and Legacy of Fear

Augustus's successor, Tiberius, while overseeing a generally stable and prosperous era for Rome, lacked his father's political acumen and social skills, choosing eventual seclusion on the island of Capri. He relied increasingly on his praetorian prefect Sejanus, who fostered an atmosphere of fear and mistrust among the senatorial elite. This period, marked by executions and a rise in trials for perceived disloyalty, stood in stark contrast to the relative openness of the Augustan years, when senators felt free to engage in pointed exchanges with the princeps, challenging his opinions without risking severe reprisals. Goldsworthy argues that the fear sown by Tiberius's regime fundamentally altered the character of the princeps-Senate relationship.

Other Perspectives

• The stability of Tiberius's reign might be overstated, as it was achieved through fear and repression, which could be argued as a fragile and unsustainable form of governance.
• The perception of Tiberius lacking social skills compared to Augustus could be influenced by the latter's exceptional charisma, setting an unusually high standard.
• Tiberius's move to Capri might have been influenced by health or personal issues that necessitated a quieter environment, rather than a deliberate withdrawal from political life.
• The delegation of authority to Sejanus could be seen as a strategic move by Tiberius to manage the vast Roman Empire more effectively, rather than a sign of over-reliance.
• Sejanus's influence on the atmosphere of fear and mistrust may have been overstated, as the political climate of suspicion could have been a continuation or exacerbation of existing tensions within the Roman Senate, rather than solely his doing.
• The notion of a rise in trials for perceived disloyalty could be challenged by the argument that such trials were not necessarily more frequent than in other periods, but rather more documented or emphasized by historical sources from that era.
• The idea of a stark contrast may also ignore the complexities of the political situation in Rome, where the Senate's power had been in decline since before Augustus, and the trend towards autocracy was part of a larger historical trajectory that Tiberius inherited rather than initiated.
• The relative openness of the Augustan years might have been due to the novelty of the principate and the senators' uncertainty about the limits of their freedom, rather than a genuine tolerance for dissent by Augustus.
• It is possible to contend that the alteration of the princeps-Senate relationship was less a result of fear and more a consequence of the Senate's strategic retreat from power, as they sought to avoid conflict with a more autocratic emperor.

The Effect of the Stability Established by Augustus on Rome

The peaceful and prosperous era that Augustus initiated profoundly impacted Roman society. Goldsworthy explains how stability allowed the economy to thrive and new aristocratic families to emerge, their experiences shaped more by the benefits of the Principate than by the memories of the turbulent decades of civil war.

Growth and Success From Peace and Competent Administration

Augustus's reign featured a period of unprecedented peace and stability, allowing the economy to grow and its population to flourish. The princeps boasted of this as tangible proof of his accomplishments, a result of his victories over foreign enemies and his firm and righteous leadership within the state. Goldsworthy emphasizes how the peace ushered in by Augustus, which was based on the unmatched might and dominion of Rome, transformed the Roman world, creating a new context for political and social life.

Context

• The peace and stability allowed for increased trade and economic integration across the Mediterranean, enhancing wealth and resource distribution.
• He implemented legal reforms and promoted traditional Roman values, which helped unify the diverse populations within the empire and fostered a sense of shared identity.
• Augustus skillfully used propaganda, including monuments and literature, to promote his image as a bringer of peace and stability, reinforcing his accomplishments in the public eye.

Rise of New Aristocratic Families Lacking Civil War Experience

The proscriptions and civil wars devastated the old Roman aristocracy. Many ancient families were obliterated, and others left with only young or childless survivors to carry on the line. Augustus, realizing this, not only created many new senators by adding members of the Italian gentry and provincial aristocracies to its ranks, but also reformed the rules for seeking office, permitting men to seek election to magistracies at an earlier age. Goldsworthy explains how this produced a new generation of senators—men who were raised during a peaceful era, with careers shaped more by the patronage and favor of the princeps than by memories of armed conflict among themselves.

Practical Tips

• Develop a personal contingency plan that addresses the unique challenges faced by young or childless individuals in the event of family crises. This plan could include legal, financial, and emotional support structures, such as establishing a will, securing life insurance, and identifying a support system of friends or community members. By planning ahead, you can ensure that you and others in similar situations are better prepared for unforeseen circumstances.
• Expand your network by inviting diverse individuals from various backgrounds to join your professional or social groups. By doing this, you mirror Augustus's inclusive approach, which can lead to a richer exchange of ideas and experiences. For instance, if you're part of a local business network, reach out to entrepreneurs from different industries or cultural backgrounds to join your meetings, fostering a more dynamic and innovative environment.

Other Perspectives

• The term "devastated" might be too strong, as some old aristocratic families may have survived and adapted to the new political landscape, maintaining some level of influence and power.
• While many ancient families were indeed obliterated, some may have survived in diminished form, retaining a degree of influence or legacy that the statement overlooks.
• This policy could have resulted in a political culture that prioritizes youthful energy over the stability and continuity that might be provided by older, more seasoned politicians.
• The new generation's reliance on patronage and favor could have fostered corruption or incompetence, as positions might have been filled based on loyalty rather than merit.
• The lack of armed conflict experience does not necessarily mean that the new senators were less capable or effective in their roles compared to their predecessors.

Augustus' Family and Dynasty Creation Efforts

This section examines Augustus's efforts to establish a dynasty, highlighting the prominent contributions of his family members and the tragedies that repeatedly disrupted his succession plans. Goldsworthy emphasizes Augustus's deep personal investment in his relatives and their public image as a reflection of his own virtues and the stability he had created.

Public Roles of Livia, Julia, and Stepsons

Augustus extended the concept of auctoritas to encompass family members, granting them unprecedented public positions and honorary titles. This was particularly true of Livia, who was his wife, and Octavia, his sister, both of whom were granted privileges normally associated with senators and magistrates, as were his stepsons Tiberius and Drusus. Goldsworthy emphasizes that these public roles, while initially justified by Augustus's desire to portray himself as head of a virtuous and traditional Roman household, would forever alter the standing of women and other relatives.

Context

• Livia Drusilla, as Augustus's wife, wielded considerable influence behind the scenes. Her involvement in political affairs and advisory roles was atypical for Roman women, highlighting her unique position in Augustus's regime.

Other Perspectives

• The public positions and titles granted to Livia, Julia, and the stepsons may not have come with actual power or significant administrative responsibilities, suggesting that the extension of auctoritas was more symbolic than substantive.
• The public roles granted to women and relatives could be viewed as a departure from traditional Roman values, which typically did not allow women such political influence.

The Deaths of Agrippa, Marcellus, Drusus, Gaius, and Lucius

Augustus, as he grew older, faced a number of personal tragedies that shattered his hopes for a smooth succession. Marcellus, Tiberius' younger brother, died in 23 BC, followed by his friend and son-in-law Agrippa in 12 BC. Drusus, his other stepson, died in an accident in 9 BCE. The most devastating blows came with the loss of his adopted sons and grandsons, Caius and Lucius, in 4 AD and 2 AD, respectively. These repeated losses, while probably due to nothing more than natural events, would later be attributed by some to schemes masterminded by a supposedly ruthless and ever-scheming Livia.

Context

• After his death, there were rumors and speculations about possible foul play, although there is no concrete evidence to support these claims.
• After his death, Drusus was honored with a cenotaph on the Rhine and a triumphal arch in Rome. His son, Claudius, would later become Emperor, continuing his legacy within the imperial family.
• Gaius died from wounds sustained during a campaign in the East, specifically in Armenia, where he was involved in military operations to secure Roman interests.
• Lucius, along with his brother Gaius, was popular among the Roman people, often seen as a symbol of the future prosperity and stability of the empire.
• Marcellus was Augustus' nephew and initially considered a potential heir. His early death disrupted Augustus' initial plans for succession, forcing him to reconsider his options.
• Ancient historians like Tacitus and Cassius Dio often portrayed Livia as a manipulative figure. Their accounts, written after the events, contributed to the narrative of her alleged involvement in these deaths.

Dynastic Arrangements of 4 AD and Tiberius' Adoption

Faced with dwindling family members to support him, Augustus was forced to adapt, choosing the unpopular Tiberius as his heir. In a bizarre and unprecedented ceremony, he adopted his former son-in-law, obliging Tiberius to adopt Germanicus and bringing the nineteen-year-old into the family. He also adopted the teenage Agrippa Postumus. Goldsworthy explains that Augustus was probably not looking to choose one successor from among these men, but creating a college of close family members to aid him in governing Rome and to keep doing so after he died.

Practical Tips

• Establish a "legacy letter" practice where you write letters to younger family members or colleagues, sharing wisdom and experiences, akin to how historical figures have influenced their successors. This can be an annual tradition where you reflect on your values and aspirations for them, fostering a sense of guidance and continuity.
• Develop a mentorship program within your family. Identify the strengths of each family member and pair them up so that they can teach and learn from each other. For example, if one member is financially savvy, they could mentor others in managing personal finances, while someone with a knack for organization could help others improve their time management skills.