PDF Summary:Alexander the Great, by Anthony Everitt

In his biography Alexander the Great, Anthony Everitt provides a detailed account of the young Macedonian king's exploits and ambitions. The book paints a vivid picture of Alexander's formative years, highlighting the influences that shaped his insatiable thirst for conquest and glory.

Everitt tracks Alexander's remarkable military achievements from defeating the Persian forces to his arduous Indian campaign. He showcases Alexander's unparalleled strategy, use of propaganda, and innovative tactics, while also uncovering the discontent sowed by his increasingly autocratic leadership in Macedonia. From Alexander's meteoric rise to his relentless determination to reach the ends of the known world, this biography offers compelling insights into one of history's most legendary figures.

(continued)...

• Study historical battles and reenact them with simulations or role-playing exercises. This can be done using computer software designed for historical simulations or through tabletop war games with friends, allowing you to understand and apply complex tactical decisions in a controlled setting.
• Enroll in an improvisation class to enhance your ability to think on your feet. Improvisation requires quick thinking and adaptability, much like the dynamic nature of a battlefield. By practicing improv, you'll become more comfortable with uncertainty and develop the skill to respond effectively to unforeseen situations. This can translate to better performance in high-pressure scenarios, such as job interviews or public speaking engagements, where the ability to adapt and respond in the moment is crucial.

Alexander's Campaigns and Expansion of Macedonia

In this section, Everitt explores Alexander’s rise to power and the early successes of his military expeditions. The author details how Philip's innovations and legacy laid the foundation for Alexander’s victories. The section also focuses on the key battles that cemented Alexander's hold over Greece and his initial incursion into Persia, highlighting the combination of military force, political maneuvering, and powerful symbolic gestures that enabled him to achieve his ambitions.

Philip's Legacy: The Foundations for Alexander's Military Victories

Everitt thoroughly analyzes how Alexander's accomplishments heavily owed to his father’s legacy. He details how the disciplined Macedonian army, created through Philip's radical military reforms, served as the primary instrument of Alexander’s conquests. The author also points out that Alexander inherited a large and resource-rich empire from his father, providing him with the financial and logistical means for sustaining his lengthy campaigns.

A Disciplined Macedonian Force Was Key to Alexander's Victories

Everitt elaborates on Philip II’s military reforms, highlighting the introduction of a professional permanent army, superior weaponry, and advanced tactical strategies. Philip, inspired by his time held captive in Thebes, adapted the Theban deep phalanx, swapping its throwing spears for sarissas, creating a more lethal and cohesive unit. He also emphasized the importance of heavy cavalry, the Companions, recognizing its strategic flexibility and power to exploit enemy weaknesses on the battlefield. This combination of phalanx formations, well-trained cavalry, and efficient logistics, the author argues, was revolutionary for the time and gave Alexander a decisive advantage over opponents who depended on undisciplined levies, outdated tactics, and inefficient supply lines.

These innovations, Everitt asserts, transformed not only Macedonia's military but also warfare itself. He argues that Philip the Second was a leader of exceptional foresight and strategic brilliance, who recognized the limitations in existing conventional tactics and developed responses that would exploit these weaknesses, creating a formidable military force whose discipline and effectiveness would pave the way for Alexander’s conquests.

Context

• The sarissa was a long spear, approximately 18 to 22 feet in length, significantly longer than the traditional Greek dory. This length allowed Macedonian soldiers to engage enemies at a greater distance, providing a tactical advantage in reach and impact.
• The presence of a disciplined and powerful cavalry like the Companions often had a psychological impact on enemy forces, causing fear and confusion, which could lead to a breakdown in their formations.
• The Companion Cavalry, or Hetairoi, was an elite unit that served as Alexander's personal guard and shock troops. Their training emphasized speed, maneuverability, and the ability to execute complex battlefield maneuvers, making them crucial for flanking and breaking enemy lines.
• These innovations influenced later military leaders and empires, including the Romans, who adopted and adapted many of these tactics in their own military strategies.
• He skillfully used diplomacy and marriage alliances to secure Macedonia’s borders and create a network of allies, reducing the need for constant warfare.
• During Philip II's time, many Greek city-states relied on traditional hoplite warfare, which involved heavily armored infantrymen fighting in tight formations. These tactics were effective in certain terrains but lacked flexibility and adaptability.

Empire Providing Resources For Alexander's Campaigns

Everitt then details how Philip II’s expansion of the Macedonian kingdom not only provided manpower for his army but also established a robust financial and logistical network capable of sustaining his son’s campaigns. Philip aggressively conquered surrounding territories, incorporating them into Macedonia and utilizing their resources, particularly the gold and silver mines of Thrace. Additionally, he implemented sophisticated administrative systems, centralized control over taxation, and a standardized coinage, the famous gold Philips, creating a highly efficient economic structure.

This economic success, argues Everitt, was a key element in Alexander's later military triumphs. Unlike the Greek armies, which depended on contributions from individual city-states and expensive mercenaries, Alexander controlled a centralized treasury and vast resources that allowed him to maintain a large, professional standing army and supply it reliably. Without Philip's foresight and strategic brilliance in both military and civil affairs, Alexander’s campaigns could never have extended beyond minor skirmishes.

Context

• Philip invested in infrastructure, such as roads and fortifications, which facilitated troop movements and improved communication across the kingdom.
• The exploitation of natural resources, such as timber and metals, was crucial for building weapons and ships, directly supporting military endeavors.
• The gold and silver mines in Thrace were among the richest in the ancient world, significantly boosting Macedonia's wealth and enabling sustained military campaigns.
• The introduction of standardized coinage, such as the gold Philips, facilitated trade and commerce by providing a reliable and widely accepted medium of exchange, which helped stabilize the economy.
• The sophisticated administrative systems put in place by Philip II provided a framework for governance and resource management, enabling Alexander to maintain control over newly conquered territories and integrate them into his empire.
• The use of siege technology, such as the torsion catapult, allowed Alexander to capture fortified cities efficiently, expanding his empire and securing additional resources.
• The economic stability achieved through Philip's reforms meant that Alexander could focus on military strategy and expansion without the constant need to secure funding or resources.

Alexander's Conquest: Strategic Alliances and Diplomatic Maneuvering

However, Philip II’s brilliance, Everitt points out, extended beyond military prowess and logistical savvy. He recognized the importance of diplomacy and strategic alliances in consolidating power and skillfully used payoffs and marital partnerships to neutralize potential adversaries. The author describes how Philip strategically married numerous women, creating a network of advantageous relationships that allowed him to subdue surrounding kingdoms and to exert influence over neighboring Greek city-states.

These diplomatic maneuvering, asserts Everitt, played a crucial role in creating a stable power base from which Alexander could begin his campaigns. His father had subdued a circle of external foes, giving Alexander the freedom to focus on his personal ambition: conquering Persia. Everitt implies a contrast between Philip, a pragmatic and methodical ruler who preferred negotiation and intrigue to warfare, and his son Alexander, a hero-worshiping warrior obsessed with the legacy of Achilles and yearning for glory in battle.

Context

• Marriages were a common diplomatic tool in ancient times, used to secure peace treaties and alliances. By marrying into different royal families, Philip could ensure loyalty and create bonds that were politically advantageous.
• Payoffs, or tributes, were commonly used to placate potential enemies or to secure the loyalty of key figures within rival states. This practice allowed rulers to avoid costly wars and maintain stability.
• Philip often integrated allied forces into his own military, which not only strengthened his army but also ensured that these allies had a vested interest in his success, as their own troops were part of his campaigns.
• Philip's diplomatic efforts included forming the League of Corinth, a federation of Greek states that recognized his leadership. This alliance provided a unified front and resources for future campaigns.
• His ability to read political situations and adapt his strategies accordingly was key to his success. He often used espionage and intelligence to stay informed about potential threats and opportunities, allowing him to act preemptively through diplomatic channels.

Alexander's Victories and Securing His Power Base

This section focuses on the early challenges Alexander faced when he ascended to power and his rapid response to them. Everitt details how Alexander moved swiftly to subdue a rebellion by city-states in Greece, consolidating his hold on the region. The author then explains Alexander's skillful and brutal handling of the Thracian tribal uprising, a campaign that secured Macedonia’s northern border, freeing him to focus on his upcoming campaign in Persia.

Swift Measures to Control Rebellious Greek City-States

On Philip II’s death, anti-Macedonian sentiment surged throughout Greece with various city-states seeking to throw off their allegiance. Everitt describes the joyful atmosphere in Athens, where Demosthenes and other politicians celebrated Philip’s assassination and confidently dismissed the young Alexander as a weak and inexperienced ruler. However, Alexander, demonstrating his grasp of strategic timing and the need for decisive action, moved swiftly south, decisively asserting his authority.

Everitt details how Alexander, drawing on a combination of military force and political maneuvering, calmed down the rebellious Greeks before meeting them at Corinth's league. There, through diplomacy and his father’s pre-established network of alliances, he persuaded the city-states to re-appoint him as their commander-in-chief in the planned war against Persia, inheriting Philip II’s carefully crafted political construct. Everitt highlights Alexander’s understanding that maintaining his father’s legacy was the quickest way to consolidate his own position, a farsighted strategy that enabled him to focus on his ambitions further east.

Context

• The presence of Macedonian garrisons in key Greek cities was a constant reminder of their subjugation, fueling resentment and a desire to reclaim self-governance.
• The assassination of Philip II was perceived as a potential turning point, offering hope to those who opposed Macedonian rule that they could restore Greek independence and diminish Macedonian influence.
• Alexander was only 20 years old when he ascended to the throne, which led many to underestimate his capabilities. In ancient times, youth was often equated with lack of experience, especially in leadership and military command.
• The swift action served to intimidate potential rebels and demonstrate Alexander's capability as a leader, countering any perceptions of him as inexperienced due to his young age.
• The league was a significant political entity in the late Classical period, representing a shift from the traditional city-state autonomy to a more centralized form of governance under Macedonian influence.
• The re-appointment as commander-in-chief required Alexander to navigate complex political landscapes, balancing the interests of various city-states, each with its own agenda and historical rivalries.
• The Persian Empire was known for its immense wealth, including vast resources and rich cities like Babylon and Persepolis. Conquering these areas promised not only military glory but also economic benefits.

Brutal Subjugation of Thracian Tribes Secures Frontier, Allowing Focus on Persia

With the Greeks subdued, Alexander turned his attention to the north, where Thracian tribes had risen in revolt, threatening Macedonian control. Everitt describes how Alexander, rejecting the cautious advice of his seasoned advisors, swiftly marched north leading his army, demonstrating his willingness to take risks and his determination to confront challenges head-on. The author describes the Thracian campaign in detail, highlighting Alexander's acumen as a commander and his characteristically bold strategies.

Everitt emphasizes Alexander’s talent for reading the terrain, exploiting the land, and utilizing his army’s superior preparation and discipline to achieve victory with minimal casualties. He recounts how Alexander, employing the element of unpredictability and innovative tactics such as the pincer movement and surprise attacks, secured crucial victories. The author also highlights the ruthlessness of the Macedonian monarch in crushing the Triballians, culminating in his daring crossing of the Danube, a spectacle designed to intimidate potential adversaries and secure Macedonia’s northern frontier. This victory, argues Everitt, cleared the way for Alexander's focus on his ultimate ambition, conquering Persia.

Context

• The Thracians were known for their fierce independence and warrior culture. Historically, they had been both allies and adversaries of the Macedonians, making their subjugation a complex task that required both military might and diplomatic skill.
• Securing the northern frontier was crucial for Alexander as it allowed him to focus resources and attention on his larger goal of conquering the Persian Empire, without the distraction of northern threats.
• The Macedonian army underwent rigorous and continuous training, which ensured that soldiers were well-prepared for various combat scenarios, enhancing their ability to execute complex maneuvers effectively.
• This is a military maneuver where forces attack both flanks of an enemy formation simultaneously. It aims to encircle and trap the opponent, cutting off their retreat and supply lines, often leading to a decisive victory.
• The Triballians were a Thracian tribe located in the region that is now part of modern-day Serbia and Bulgaria. They were known for their fierce resistance against invaders, which made them a significant threat to Macedonian interests in the region.
• The Danube River is one of Europe's major rivers, serving as a natural boundary. Crossing it demonstrated Alexander's ability to overcome significant geographical obstacles, showcasing his strategic prowess.

Gordium's Symbolism: Slicing the Knot of Gordium as Alexander's Ambition and Destiny

Everitt then focuses on Alexander reaching Gordium, the Phrygian capital, and his encounter with the knot of Gordius. This episode, the author argues, highlights the importance of symbolism and myth-making in Alexander's campaign. The knot of Gordium was a legendary convoluted tangle traditionally said to be solvable only by the future ruler of Asia. Alexander, unable to untie it by conventional means, simply sliced it through using his blade.

This decisive action, which some might consider cheating, was interpreted by Alexander and his followers as proof of his divinely ordained destiny. Everitt highlights Alexander's skill in exploiting such symbolic acts to reinforce his authority and bolster his troops’ morale. The author implies that, deeply influenced by Homeric ideals of heroic action, Alexander seized upon these opportunities to present himself as a figure of destiny, a new Achilles divinely chosen for greatness.

Practical Tips

• Develop a short, compelling story about a pivotal moment in your life that shaped who you are. Similar to the myth-making of Alexander's exploits, your story can serve as a motivational narrative for others when you share it during networking events or as part of your professional bio.
• Embrace the idea of "cutting the Gordian knot" by making a bold decision to overcome a longstanding issue. When faced with a decision that seems to have no easy options, sometimes the best course of action is to make a decisive move that changes the game entirely. If you've been stuck in a job that doesn't fulfill you, consider making a radical career change to pursue your passion.
• Reflect on personal milestones to identify your own "divinely ordained" moments. Consider times when you've overcome significant challenges or achieved something remarkable. Write these instances down and contemplate how they've shaped your sense of purpose or destiny. This can help reinforce your self-belief and provide motivation during future endeavors.

Alexander's Campaign in Persia

This section details the early part of Alexander's campaign in Persia, starting with when he got to Troy. Everitt meticulously dissects Alexander's careful planning, logistical expertise, and innovative tactics, contrasting them with the shortcomings of Darius III and the Persian military leadership.

Journey to the Granicus: Planning and Logistical Expertise

The invasion began with a strategically calculated stop at Troy, the legendary site of the war in which the Greeks fought against Troy. Everitt argues that this symbolic act, seemingly extraneous to the main campaign, was designed to underscore Alexander's self-promotion as a protector of Hellenic ideals and the continuation of the ancient Greek struggle against the east. He recounts how the king, reliving his Homeric heroes' journeys, reenacted their deeds, making sacrifices, offering libations, and dedicating trophies, thus creating a spectacle designed to resonate with the Greek imagination.

Everitt then describes how Alexander assembled his forces for the incursion and meticulously planned for the logistical demands of a lengthy campaign, highlighting his sensitivity to his soldiers' welfare. He established supply networks, enforced strict discipline, and regularly organized artistic events and celebrations to maintain morale, demonstrating a gift for human resource management, which some argue was on par with his abilities in combat. The author contrasts this methodical approach with the more lackadaisical Persian leadership, who misjudged the Macedonian threat and failed to prepare adequately for the challenge posed by Alexander’s well-trained and efficiently supplied troops.

Context

• The sacrifices and libations at Troy were not only symbolic but also religious acts that would have resonated deeply with his contemporaries, who viewed such rituals as essential for gaining the favor of the gods.
• Dedicating trophies or other items was a way to commemorate victories and honor the gods. This practice linked Alexander's achievements to those of legendary figures, enhancing his prestige and legitimacy.
• Alexander managed the financial aspects of his campaign meticulously, securing funding through spoils of war, alliances, and local taxation systems.
• The logistics of moving an army across vast distances included managing transportation methods such as pack animals and carts, and ensuring that roads and paths were passable, which was crucial for maintaining the pace and effectiveness of the campaign.
• Engaging in artistic activities provided a psychological respite for soldiers, helping to alleviate the stress and fatigue of military campaigns by offering a sense of normalcy and connection to home.
• The Persian intelligence network may have been inadequate in providing accurate information about the size, strength, and intentions of Alexander's forces, leading to strategic miscalculations.
• The vast distances within the empire meant that communication was slow, making it difficult to respond swiftly to the fast-moving Macedonian army.

Alexander's Brilliance in Tactics, Merging Macedonian Strength With Daring Strategies

Everitt then shifts his focus to the Battle of the Granicus River, the first major engagement of Alexander against the Persian forces. The author offers an in-depth recounting of the battle, highlighting the advantages of the Macedonians, the Persian leadership's weaknesses, and Alexander’s decisive role in achieving victory through a combination of bold tactics and skillful exploitation of battlefield realities.

The author meticulously reconstructs events, highlighting how Alexander’s keen awareness of the opposition's dispositions led him to design an assault strategy specifically tailored to their errors and vulnerabilities. Everitt emphasizes how Alexander combined his father’s revolutionary military innovations with his own daring battlefield judgments, spearheading the aggressive cavalry assault that routed the enemy. The author implies that Alexander's strategies, while seemingly reckless, were rooted in a deep understanding of battlefield dynamics, demonstrating his talent for merging strategic considerations with decisive action.

Context

• Alexander often used psychological tactics to intimidate and demoralize his opponents, such as unexpected night marches or feigned retreats, which added an element of unpredictability to his strategies.
• He often used the terrain to his advantage, positioning his forces in a way that maximized their strengths while exploiting the enemy's weaknesses, such as using riverbanks or hills to disrupt enemy formations.
• Alexander's father, Philip II of Macedon, revolutionized the Macedonian army by introducing the phalanx formation, which used longer spears (sarissas) and tighter troop formations, enhancing both offensive and defensive capabilities.
• The Persian army at the Granicus was composed of a mix of Greek mercenaries and local troops. Their leadership was divided, which Alexander exploited by targeting weak points in their formation.
• Alexander the Great was tutored by Aristotle, which provided him with a broad education, including lessons in philosophy, science, and the arts. This education likely contributed to his ability to think strategically and understand complex situations.

Alexander the Great's Use of Propagandistic Tactics and Symbolism: Troy Visit and Captured Cities Treatment

Everitt also analyzes the political and symbolic significance of Alexander's initial engagements, framing his battlefield victories within a larger propaganda campaign intended to promote his authority and legitimacy among both Greeks and Persians. The author highlights how Alexander's trip to Troy served not only as a personal pilgrimage but also as a public relations campaign designed to portray him as a modern Achilles, continuing the heroic struggle against the east and inspiring his troops with a sense of fulfilling destiny.

Everitt argues that this masterful manipulation of symbols and historical narratives was a key element in Alexander's successes. He further explicates how Alexander skillfully managed public perceptions by emphasizing his generosity, restraint, and respect for local customs in opposition to Persian decadence and cruelty. He pardoned prisoners, returned looted treasures, and oversaw the rebuilding of damaged temples, portraying himself as a liberator rather than a conqueror.

Context

• Troy was a legendary city from Homer's "Iliad," which was central to Greek mythology. The story of the Trojan War, where Achilles was a key hero, was well-known and revered in Greek culture.
• In the ancient world, news and information spread through word of mouth, inscriptions, and coinage. Alexander's use of these mediums helped disseminate his image and messages across his empire, reinforcing his desired narrative.
• His symbolic gestures, such as rebuilding temples and respecting local customs, were strategic moves to win over local elites and populations, facilitating smoother governance and reducing the likelihood of rebellion.
• Previous conquerors, such as Cyrus the Great of Persia, had also used similar tactics of clemency and respect for local traditions to stabilize and legitimize their rule over vast, culturally diverse empires.
• Pardoning prisoners and returning treasures were strategic moves to undermine Persian authority and present himself as a more benevolent ruler. This approach helped to destabilize Persian control and encourage local leaders to align with him.

Sieges in Alexander's Campaigns: Macedonian Siegecraft and Alexander's Determination

Finally, Everitt describes how Alexander successfully overcame the challenges posed by Persia's fortified cities through his careful application of innovative siegecraft techniques. He details the technological advancements introduced by Philip II, such as improved battering rams, wheeled towers, and advanced artillery, emphasizing the importance of Macedonian engineers like Diades.

The author analyzes Alexander’s tenacious pursuit of victory during the lengthy Halicarnassus and Tyre campaigns, emphasizing his determination, readiness to adapt, and skill in learning from setbacks. Everitt describes Alexander’s use of subterfuge, his constant exploitation of the enemy's weaknesses, and his reliance on a combination of straightforward attacks and strategic blockade. In these sieges, Alexander's character as a leader was tested to its limit, and the author argues that his resilience, tactical finesse, and personal courage ultimately ensured success, paving the way for his deeper incursion into Persia's empire.

Practical Tips

• Use creative thinking to find unconventional solutions to everyday challenges. Imagine you're faced with a tight deadline at work; instead of following the usual workflow, brainstorm with colleagues to find a faster, more efficient process, much like devising a new siege technique to conquer a city.
• Encourage creative thinking by writing a short story that incorporates ancient military technology. Imagine a scenario where these technologies are used in a different context, such as a fantasy world or an alternative history setting. This exercise can help you understand the impact of technological advancements on society and warfare.
• Apply siegecraft principles to problem-solving by identifying a complex issue in your life and breaking it down into smaller, manageable parts. Just as ancient engineers would dismantle a fortress wall piece by piece, approach your problem by tackling one small section at a time. This method can be used for anything from organizing a cluttered home to developing a new business strategy.
• Embrace a tenacious mindset by setting a challenging personal goal and breaking it down into smaller, actionable steps. For example, if you aim to run a marathon, start by running short distances and gradually increase your mileage each week. This mirrors the persistence seen in historical campaigns, where small victories lead to larger successes.
• Enhance your adaptability by engaging in a "Skill Swap" challenge with friends or colleagues. Each month, swap a skill with someone—teaching each other something new. This activity pushes you out of your comfort zone, requiring you to adapt and learn from others in a social and low-stakes environment.
• Improve your problem-solving by analyzing everyday situations for weaknesses and potential solutions. Start with something as simple as optimizing your morning routine by identifying inefficiencies, like the time it takes to make breakfast, and experiment with pre-prepared meals or different food combinations to streamline your process.
• Reflect on your own leadership moments by journaling about times when you faced challenges. Write down the situations, how you responded, what the outcomes were, and what you learned about your leadership style. This self-reflection can help you understand your strengths and areas for improvement in leadership, similar to how historical leaders' characters were tested.
• Build personal courage by setting small, daily goals that push you slightly out of your comfort zone. This could be as simple as initiating a conversation with a stranger or trying a new activity that intimidates you. Over time, these small acts of bravery accumulate, boosting your confidence and ability to face larger challenges.
• Identify a successful strategy in your field and adapt it to break into a new market or sector. Just as Alexander's success allowed for further advances, you can study a successful business model or strategy within your industry and tailor it to penetrate a market segment that your business has not yet reached. For example, if you run a local bakery that's known for its artisan bread, consider offering gluten-free or vegan options to attract customers with dietary restrictions.

Tensions in Alexander's Forces Expose Growing Challenges

Everitt, while detailing Alexander’s military prowess and audacious leadership, meticulously highlights the emerging anxieties within the military and court created by his policies and actions. The author describes how Alexander's autocratic approach and his embrace of Persian practices alienated traditionalist Macedonians, foreshadowing the fissures that would eventually lead to the realm's breakup.

Philotas Affair Reveals Concerns About Alexander's Autocracy and Persian Policies

The author focuses on Philotas's execution as a pivotal event exposing these anxieties. Philotas was Parmenion's son, one of Alexander’s most experienced generals inherited from Philip. He faced allegations of treason and was executed after being tortured for information. Everitt carefully examines the evidence, suggesting that the charges against Philotas were weak and that Alexander likely manufactured a conspiracy to justify his removal.

Everitt argues that behind this event lay deeper anxieties about Alexander’s increasingly autocratic rule and his growing adoption of Persian practices. The author implies that Philotas suffered from Alexander’s suspicions and paranoia, reflecting a wider pattern of purging loyal but inconveniently powerful figures. Philotas' execution, Everitt suggests, was a turning point in Alexander's governance, marking a shift towards a more controlling and less tolerant leadership style, which alienated those who valued Macedonian customs and deepened the king's isolation.

Other Perspectives

• The execution of Philotas could be seen as an isolated incident rather than a turning point, with Alexander's leadership style remaining consistent before and after the event.
• The use of torture to extract information from Philotas could be indicative of the severity with which Alexander's administration treated potential treason, rather than a sign of the allegations' weakness.
• The execution of Philotas could have been the result of a legitimate legal process where evidence, although not apparent to modern historians, was convincing to contemporaries.
• The concerns about Alexander's rule could have been amplified by a vocal minority resistant to change, rather than reflecting a widespread anxiety among the Macedonian populace or leadership.
• The historical record may not provide sufficient evidence to conclude definitively that there was a pattern of purging loyal but powerful figures, as the motivations behind such actions are complex and multifaceted.
• It could be argued that the execution was a necessary measure in a time of war to maintain discipline and unity within the ranks, rather than a sign of increasing autocracy.

Cleitus' Murder Revealing Tension Among Alexander and Macedonian Commanders and a Coarsening of the King

This apprehension was further amplified by the murder of Cleitus, a confidant of Alexander and a veteran of Philip’s campaigns. Everitt vividly recounts the episode, describing a drunken banquet where Cleitus and Alexander engaged in a heated argument. Cleitus, acting unusually, criticized Alexander's ambitions to become a deity and his embrace of Persian customs, triggering a violent response from the enraged king.

Everitt argues that the murder, while seemingly an impulsive act of drunken anger, reveals the king's increasingly volatile personality, his susceptibility to flattery, and his growing intolerance of dissent. The author suggests that Alexander's Persianizing policies and autocratic manner had alienated those who valued the traditional egalitarianism of Macedonian governance, creating a toxic atmosphere further exacerbated by the king’s fondness for alcohol and his violent temper. Everitt implies that the incident, while shocking, was symptomatic of a wider trend in how Alexander governed, where brutal effectiveness was displacing rational consensus as the foundation for rule.

Context

• The murder of Cleitus likely had a chilling effect on the morale of the Macedonian troops and commanders, as it demonstrated the potential consequences of opposing or criticizing the king.
• The Macedonian court was known for its heavy drinking culture, which often led to volatile situations. Alexander's own consumption of alcohol likely exacerbated his temper and impaired his judgment, contributing to the incident with Cleitus.
• Cleitus the Black was a high-ranking officer and had saved Alexander's life at the Battle of Granicus. His close relationship with Alexander made his criticisms particularly stinging and personal.
• Ancient historians like Arrian and Plutarch provide varying accounts of the incident, highlighting the challenges in interpreting historical events where personal biases and limited sources affect narratives.
• The deaths of close friends and companions during his campaigns could have affected his emotional stability, leading to increased volatility in his reactions and decisions.
• Unlike his father, Philip II, who maintained a more egalitarian relationship with his commanders, Alexander's susceptibility to flattery marked a shift towards a more autocratic and isolated leadership style.
• Excessive drinking among leaders could erode military discipline, as soldiers and officers might emulate the king's behavior, leading to a decline in order and effectiveness within the ranks.
• Traditionally, Macedonian kings ruled with the support of their nobles and military commanders, often seeking consensus through councils and assemblies. This system allowed for shared decision-making and maintained loyalty among the ranks.

Royal Pages Conspiracy Illustrating Apprehension About Alexander's Behavior

Everitt then details the conspiracy involving young royal pages, a plot by a group of young pages to assassinate Alexander. These teenagers were charged with mundane tasks but were closely connected to Alexander. The author highlights the political dimension of the affair, arguing that the pages, like Cleitus and Philotas, objected to Alexander's behavior and saw him as betraying Macedonian traditions.

The episode reveals that discontent with Alexander’s leadership was not confined to senior officers, but was spreading to the younger generation, who would eventually inherit positions of power. Everitt suggests that the conspiracy, while futile and easily crushed, was an early warning sign of the challenges Alexander faced in maintaining Macedonian support. The author, however, also points out that, although the king ruthlessly punished those he suspected of treason, he remained sensitive to people's perceptions. He pardoned the brother of a conspirator and attempted to appease his troops, demonstrating a complex combination of severity and generosity designed to maintain loyalty while discouraging dissent.

Practical Tips

• Volunteer for a local organization that deals with conflict resolution or governance. Engage in discussions or workshops that focus on understanding different perspectives and the roots of dissent. This hands-on experience can provide insight into the dynamics of objection and conspiracy in a real-world setting, allowing you to apply lessons from historical events to contemporary issues.
• Pair a mundane task with a learning opportunity to make it more engaging. For example, listen to a podcast or an audiobook on a topic you're interested in while doing dishes or laundry. This strategy turns a routine task into a chance for personal development and makes the time spent feel more productive.
• Start a journal to reflect on instances where you've felt pressured to conform to traditions. Use this as a tool to identify and analyze your personal experiences with societal expectations. You might write about a time when you chose a career path that was unconventional for your family or community and the reactions you received.
• Conduct an anonymous survey among your friends or colleagues to gauge their feelings about leadership in different contexts, such as politics, community organizations, or sports teams. Use the results to see if there's a trend of discontent that spans across age groups, and then brainstorm potential solutions or improvements that could address these concerns.
• Encourage open communication by setting up regular one-on-one meetings with team members where they can voice concerns without fear of retribution. This can help you understand their perspectives and preemptively address issues that might lead to dissent. Use these meetings to also share your vision and goals, which can help align their interests with those of the team or organization.

Persian Influence Alienating Macedonian Troops, Foreshadowing Empire's Fall

The author then describes how Alexander, despite growing anxieties over his policies, doubled down on his Persianizing strategies, further integrating Persians into his forces, introducing Oriental customs into court etiquette, and marrying Rhoxane, a Sogdian princess. These actions, Everitt argues, while politically expedient, further alienated traditionalist Macedonians and deepened anxieties about Alexander's ambitions and his growing detachment from his core supporters.

Everitt uses these episodes to illustrate the fragility of Alexander's empire. He argues that the ruler’s policies, while designed to secure a vast and multi-ethnic territory, simultaneously created new tensions and anxieties within his own ranks. The diverse and inclusive ideal promoted by his propagandists concealed the underlying reality of domination. Traditionalist Macedonians were losing their positions at court, their heroic ideals of kingship were being disregarded, and the army itself was being transformed into a multinational force. The author suggests that these events, while seemingly minor, exposed the fissures that would soon break apart Alexander's audaciously built empire.

Context

• This integration had long-term implications for the Hellenistic world, influencing the cultural and political landscapes of successor states after Alexander's death, as they continued to grapple with the challenges of ruling over diverse populations.
• The Persian court was highly structured with a clear hierarchy, unlike the more egalitarian Macedonian court. Alexander's adoption of this system emphasized a more rigid and formal court environment.
• Sogdiana, located in what is now parts of Uzbekistan and Tajikistan, was a crucial region for controlling Central Asia. Marrying Roxane helped Alexander secure this strategically important area, which was vital for maintaining his empire's eastern borders.
• Alexander's adoption of Persian customs and attire was seen as a betrayal by his Macedonian troops, who valued their own traditions and viewed Persian culture as foreign and inferior.
• Alexander's marriage to Rhoxane and other political alliances with non-Macedonian elites were strategic moves to secure loyalty and stability in newly conquered regions. However, these alliances were viewed with suspicion by his Macedonian followers, who feared losing their influence.
• Integrating soldiers from different ethnic backgrounds into his army was a strategic move to create a more versatile and adaptable military force. This diversity was meant to enhance the army's capabilities in various terrains and against different enemies.
• Historically, empires have often used the guise of inclusivity to maintain control over diverse populations. This strategy helps to placate conquered peoples while ensuring the dominance of the ruling class.
• Holding positions at court often came with economic benefits, such as land grants and wealth. Losing these positions could have financial repercussions for the Macedonian elite.
• Practices such as proskynesis (a Persian act of bowing or prostration) were seen as contrary to the egalitarian warrior ethos of the Macedonians, who valued direct and personal interaction with their king.
• The inclusion of non-Macedonian soldiers often meant that leadership roles were also opened to non-Macedonians, which could undermine the traditional power structures and loyalties within the army.
• The continuous military campaigns and the need to maintain a large, diverse army placed a significant financial burden on the empire. The economic strain contributed to unrest and dissatisfaction among both the military and civilian populations.

Alexander of Macedon's Indian Campaign: Ambition Limits and Military Control Difficulties

Everitt details Alexander's audacious, but ultimately frustrating, campaign in India. He describes how the king, driven by his pothos to reach Ocean, the world's frontier, pushed his forces into dangerous and unknown territories, exposing their limits and his own vulnerability to the desires and anxieties of his subordinates.

Alexander's Ambition to Explore World's Edges

Everitt begins by describing how Alexander, having conquered the heartland of Persia's realm, set his sights on India, a mysterious land thought to lie at the world's eastern boundary. Drawing on historical texts, the author recounts the fantasies and legends associated with India, a land of mythical creatures, exotic customs, and unimaginable wealth. These tales, Everitt argues, fueled Alexander’s ambition to surpass his legendary predecessors, Heracles and Dionysus, by conquering the Indian peninsula and reaching the Ocean river.

The author highlights Alexander’s insatiable curiosity and his boundless desire for exploration, arguing that his ambition extended beyond mere conquest. He also sought to push the boundaries of knowledge and expand the geographical understanding of Greece. Everitt suggests that this drive for discovery, while admirable, had its darker side, revealing a tendency toward recklessness and a willingness to sacrifice his soldiers' lives while pursuing ultimately unattainable goals.

Practical Tips

• Apply the "expansion principle" to your knowledge base by exploring a new field after mastering one. If you've become proficient in a language or subject, start learning another that's geographically or conceptually adjacent, like a linguist learning Persian then moving on to Hindi, or a software developer proficient in one programming language beginning to learn another that shares similar paradigms or is in demand in the industry.
• Create a virtual travel journal where you document the history, art, and traditions of different Indian regions using online resources. This activity will allow you to 'travel' and discover the mysteries of India from your own home. You can use multimedia elements like videos, articles, and virtual tours to create a rich, immersive experience.
• Create a themed book club focusing on Indian mythology and folklore. Gather a group of friends or join an online community interested in exploring the mythical aspects of different cultures. Each month, select a book or story from Indian literature that features mythical creatures or legends, and discuss the cultural significance and historical context behind these tales.
• Develop a "Challenge the Greats" vision board in a visible place in your home or office, featuring images and quotes from historical figures you admire. Use this board as a daily reminder to strive for excellence in your endeavors. You could select figures from different eras and fields, such as inventors, explorers, or leaders, and juxtapose their accomplishments with your personal goals, creating a visual representation of the legacy you aim to build upon.
• Develop a "reach the Ocean river" mindset by regularly stepping out of your comfort zone and trying something new that aligns with your interests. Alexander's ambition to reach the Ocean river symbolizes the pursuit of the unknown. You might try a new hobby every month, such as joining a dance class, taking up a new sport, or attending a workshop on a subject you know little about, to cultivate a spirit of exploration and personal growth.
• Create a "Discovery Map" of your local area. Pick a nearby location you've never visited or know little about. Spend a day exploring it with the goal of learning something new. Take notes or photographs of interesting sights, sounds, and experiences. Afterwards, reflect on what you discovered and how it felt to delve into the unknown.
• Volunteer for projects or tasks at work that are unrelated to your usual responsibilities. This will not only broaden your skill set but also give you insight into different aspects of your organization or industry. For example, if you work in finance, volunteer to help with a marketing campaign. This cross-disciplinary approach can lead to innovative ideas and a deeper understanding of your business as a whole.
• Engage with international pen pals to gain firsthand insights into different cultures and geographies. Platforms like InterPals or Global Penfriends allow you to connect with people from around the world. By exchanging letters or emails, you can learn about the daily lives, customs, and environments of others, providing a personal connection to global geography.
• Create a personal code of ethics that includes how you value and weigh the potential impact of your actions on others. Start by listing your core values and principles. Then, draft guidelines that will help you make decisions that align with these values, especially in situations where there's a temptation to prioritize success or discovery over the well-being of others.
• Set a "moonshot" goal for a personal project that stretches your capabilities and imagination. By aiming for something that seems just out of reach, you'll push yourself to innovate and grow, much like Alexander's pursuit of the unattainable. For example, if you're a hobbyist writer, aim to draft a novel in a genre you've never tried before, challenging yourself to complete it within a tight deadline.

Alexander's Tactical Brilliance Overcoming Indian Forces

Everitt then details Alexander's military campaign in the Punjab, meticulously describing his ingenious tactics, his ability to learn and adapt to unfamiliar environments and adversaries, and the exceptional resilience and combat prowess of the soldiers under his command. He focuses on the confrontation at the Hydaspes River, the pivotal engagement with the Indian ruler Porus.

The author details how Alexander, outnumbered and confronted with a formidable army equipped with war elephants, skillfully exploited his knowledge of local geography, the element of surprise, and the vulnerabilities of the Indian forces. Everitt describes how Alexander, drawing on his experience of fighting the Scythian forces, utilized a strategically timed cavalry charge to break the Indian ranks and secure a conclusive win. The author emphasizes how, even as Alexander ruthlessly pursued victory, he also acted chivalrously, sparing the vanquished Porus and ensuring him a place as an ally in his new Indian domain.

Context

• He developed new supply chain strategies to support his army in varied terrains, ensuring they remained well-provisioned even in remote areas.
• The Indian forces used war elephants, which were intimidating but had vulnerabilities. Alexander's troops targeted the mahouts (elephant drivers) and used their agility to outmaneuver the elephants, causing chaos in the enemy ranks.
• By spreading misinformation and using deceptive signals, Alexander created uncertainty and hesitation within the Indian ranks, undermining their ability to respond effectively.
• The Scythian campaigns involved significant logistical planning due to the vast and varied landscapes, which would have prepared Alexander for the logistical complexities of crossing the Hydaspes River.
• The victory at the Hydaspes River marked the easternmost extent of Alexander's conquests and facilitated cultural exchanges between the Greek and Indian civilizations.
• Acts of chivalry contributed to Alexander's reputation as a magnanimous ruler, enhancing his legacy and facilitating the integration of diverse cultures within his empire.
• Porus was known for his bravery and leadership, which earned Alexander's respect. By allying with Porus, Alexander could leverage his influence and knowledge of the region to help manage the local population.

The Soldiers' Refusal to Continue: Exhaustion and Longing Undermine Alexander's Ambitions

Everitt then recounts how Alexander’s grand vision for conquering all India encountered a critical setback—his army's refusal to continue their campaign. The author paints a vivid picture of the exhausted Macedonian troops, demoralized by the hardships of endless campaigns, worn down by the unrelenting monsoon rains, and yearning for home.

The author describes the growing mood of discontent among the troops, highlighting the murmurs of complaint, the reluctance to follow orders, and the growing fear that Alexander’s ambition had no limits.

Context

• Maintaining long supply lines over vast distances was a logistical nightmare, leading to shortages of food and other essential supplies, exacerbating the soldiers' hardships.
• The Indian subcontinent presented unfamiliar and challenging terrain for the Macedonian army, including dense jungles and vast rivers, which were difficult to navigate and added to the soldiers' fatigue.
• Alexander the Great's campaigns stretched over a decade, covering vast territories from Greece to India. This relentless pace contributed to the soldiers' exhaustion and discontent.

Alexander's Hyphasis Withdrawal to Preserve Image and Authority

Everitt then carefully examines Alexander's response to this crisis, highlighting how, for once, the ruler was forced to concede to the desires of his men and skillfully managed his retreat to preserve his image and maintain authority. He describes the tense meeting between Alexander and his commanders, where Coenus, a veteran commander, eloquently voiced the army’s desire for peace.

The author details how Alexander, initially furious at being contradicted, recognized that his campaign had met its limits. He then skillfully withdrew his troops, making a public show of honoring the deities and arranging elaborate celebrations and sacrifices before embarking on the long journey home. Everitt argues that, in this instance, Alexander demonstrated his pragmatism and his sensitivity to the political realities of leadership. He understood he couldn't maintain an empire, however vast, by force alone. He understood when to yield.

Context

• Coenus, one of Alexander's trusted generals, played a crucial role in voicing the collective concerns of the troops, emphasizing the need for rest and the desire to return to their families.
• This was a pivotal moment in Alexander's campaign, marking the first significant instance where he had to publicly acknowledge the limits of his expansionist ambitions.
• By framing the withdrawal as a religious and celebratory event, Alexander maintained morale and authority, ensuring that the retreat did not appear as a defeat but as a strategic decision.
• Such ceremonies were not only religious but also served as a symbolic gesture to mark the end of a significant phase of the campaign, providing closure and a sense of purpose to the retreat.
• Understanding political realities involves recognizing the needs and sentiments of those you lead. Alexander had to balance his ambitions with the well-being and desires of his soldiers, acknowledging that their support was crucial for his continued success.
• Yielding at the Hyphasis was a strategic decision. Alexander understood that overextending his forces could lead to vulnerability and potential defeat, which would threaten the stability of his empire.

Alexander's Gedrosian Disaster: Demoralizing Army, Exposing Leadership Risks, Impacting Health

In a final and tragic episode in this section, Everitt recounts Alexander’s disastrous journey through Gedrosia, an episode that epitomized the recklessness and the risks he embraced as a leader. Everitt explains that Alexander undertook this journey not to conquer, but to explore and secure new routes for trade linking India and Mesopotamia. He anticipated relying on his fleet for support, but this failed to materialize.

The author paints a terrifying picture of the grueling march, with thousands of soldiers and accompanying followers succumbing to thirst, heat exhaustion, and starvation. Everitt details how Alexander, while enduring the same privations as his men, desperately sought to maintain discipline and morale, sharing meager supplies, encouraging his fatigued soldiers, and demonstrating resilience through his own behavior. Despite his attempts, the calamity in Gedrosia exacted a heavy toll. Everitt highlights the trauma of the episode, both for those who survived and for Alexander himself, whose health was permanently damaged, further undermining his belief in his invulnerability, a conviction that had undergirded his leadership to this point.

Practical Tips

• Engage in small-scale simulations of challenging situations to build resilience. Start with a low-stakes project or activity and intentionally introduce obstacles or limitations to mimic the adversity faced in Gedrosia. This practice can help you develop problem-solving skills and mental toughness that are transferable to larger, real-world challenges.
• Create a "morale meter" to track your daily motivation levels. Use a simple scale from 1 to 10 to rate how motivated you feel each day and note any events that might have influenced your score. Over time, you'll be able to see trends and take proactive steps to boost your morale when you anticipate a dip.
• Implement a 'Risk Audit' for your personal projects by listing the risks associated with each step and developing contingency plans. This proactive approach can help you anticipate potential issues and build resilience, allowing you to lead with confidence even in uncertain situations.
• Start a hobbyist import-export club with friends or community members where each person researches and shares information about different countries' unique products. This club could lead to small-scale trade opportunities, cultural exchange, and a better understanding of global market dynamics.
• Develop a habit of conducting regular "expectation audits" where you assess the reliability of your support system. Set aside time every month to review the commitments made by your team, partners, or network. This could involve having honest conversations to gauge their continued interest and ability to support your endeavors, or setting up informal check-ins to monitor progress and engagement levels. This way, you can proactively address any signs of waning support before it becomes critical.
• Develop a personal emergency preparedness plan that includes strategies for dealing with water scarcity, extreme temperatures, and food shortages. Research and assemble a survival kit with items such as a water filter, electrolyte packets, and energy-dense foods. By preparing for these conditions, you'll be better equipped to handle potential crises that mirror the hardships experienced by the soldiers.
• Create a "Shared Resource Pool" at work where employees can contribute and borrow items like books, tools, or even professional attire for important meetings, fostering a sense of camaraderie and mutual support similar to Alexander's soldiers sharing supplies. This can be a physical space in the office or a digital platform where employees list items they're willing to lend. It encourages resourcefulness and strengthens team bonds by showing trust and willingness to help each other succeed with whatever resources are available.
• Create a "support squad" with friends or family members to prepare for future hardships. This squad should be a group of people you can rely on during tough times. Set up regular check-ins with them to build strong bonds before any crisis occurs. For instance, if you're going through a stressful period at work, having a pre-established support squad can provide you with the emotional and practical support you need.
• Engage in low-impact, restorative physical activities if you're recovering from an illness or injury. Activities like yoga, swimming, or walking can maintain your fitness without putting undue stress on your body. Over time, these gentle exercises can help improve your overall health and prevent the deterioration of your physical condition.
• Create a "reality check" group with friends or colleagues. Meet regularly to discuss personal and professional experiences where you felt invincible and the outcomes of those situations. Sharing these stories can provide perspective, help you identify patterns of overconfidence, and encourage a more balanced view of your capabilities.

Alexander's Interactions With Persian Empire and Greek City-States

This section focuses on the complex relationship between Alexander, the Persian Empire he inherited, and his fellow Greeks. Everitt describes how the king skillfully transitioned from liberator to conqueror, embracing Persian customs and enlisting the support of Persia's elite. The author also details Alexander's methods for maintaining his authority over a restless Greece, highlighting the balancing act between appeasement and ruthlessness that ultimately failed to secure his legacy.

Alexander's Ambiguous Approach to Persia's Realm

Everitt meticulously explains how Alexander’s approach to Persia was characterized by a complex interplay of pragmatism, ambition, and a calculated manipulation of symbolism and propaganda. The author highlights how Alexander skillfully used the language of liberating cities populated by Greeks along the Asian coast as a justification for waging war against a much larger foe, while simultaneously preparing for a more ambitious project of conquest and empire building.

Alexander's Liberation of Ionian Cities: Greek Freedom and Propaganda Tool

Everitt recounts how Alexander, after winning at the Granicus River, quickly marched south, liberating Greek-speaking cities that had been under Persian control for centuries. He eliminated pro-Persian governments, restored democratic institutions, and returned looted treasures, presenting himself as the champion of Hellenic freedom. However, Everitt argues that this policy was not entirely altruistic. Alexander understood how propaganda could be used and cleverly crafted his actions to appeal to Greek sensibilities, creating a narrative of justified revenge targeting a tyrannical empire.

This manipulation of Hellenic ideals, argues the author, allowed Alexander to legitimize his campaign among the Greeks, securing their naval and armed forces' support while gaining him valuable international prestige that weakened resistance to his progression. However, Everitt also implies that there was an element of self-deception in the rhetoric and actions of Alexander. As the campaign progressed, liberation often gave way to occupation and Alexander's grand vision for a united Greek world, like so many political plans, revealed itself to be no more than a disguise for expansion and conquest.

Context

• This was one of Alexander's first major battles against the Persian Empire, occurring in 334 BCE. It marked the beginning of his campaign in Asia Minor and was crucial for establishing his reputation as a formidable military leader.
• The Ionian cities were originally Greek colonies that had fallen under Persian control during the 6th century BCE, particularly after the Persian conquest of Lydia. This control was solidified after the Ionian Revolt (499-493 BCE), which was crushed by the Persians.
• Under Persian control, many Greek cities were governed by tyrants or oligarchies loyal to Persia. These governments were often unpopular among the local populations, who favored democratic systems.
• The restoration of democratic institutions often meant the return of exiled citizens and the redistribution of power among local elites, which could lead to significant social and political changes within these cities.
• During ancient military campaigns, it was common for victors to loot cities, taking valuable items as spoils of war. This practice was not only a means of enriching the conquerors but also a way to demoralize the defeated and assert dominance.
• The concept of "Hellenic freedom" was tied to the Greek identity, emphasizing autonomy, democracy, and resistance against foreign domination, which were central to Greek pride and self-perception.
• Alexander often sought the endorsement of religious oracles, such as the Oracle of Delphi, to legitimize his actions, portraying them as divinely sanctioned missions against Persian despotism.
• During Alexander's time, the Greek city-states had a strong tradition of naval power, particularly Athens, which had a formidable fleet. Securing their support meant gaining access to these naval resources, crucial for controlling the Aegean Sea and ensuring supply lines.
• The use of propaganda served as a form of psychological warfare, demoralizing Persian forces and local leaders by suggesting that resistance was futile against a liberator backed by the will of the Greek people.
• Alexander often portrayed himself as a liberator and unifier of the Greek world, but his actions frequently contradicted these ideals. His campaigns often resulted in the imposition of Macedonian control rather than true liberation, suggesting a disconnect between his stated goals and actual outcomes.
• In ancient military campaigns, it was common for initial promises of liberation to shift towards occupation as conquerors sought to maintain control over newly acquired territories. This often involved installing loyal administrations and garrisons to secure strategic locations.
• The concept of a united Greek world was rooted in the idea of Panhellenism, which sought to unify the often-warring Greek city-states under a single political and cultural identity. This idea was appealing to many Greeks who were weary of internal conflicts.