Where do self-serving behaviors come from? Are humans selfish by nature?<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Many people believe that humans are hardwired to be selfish, and there\u2019s scientific evidence to back that up. But just because we\u2019re born with an innate desire to serve ourselves, that doesn\u2019t mean we have to live a completely selfish life.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Keep reading to learn where selfishness comes from and how we can rise from it.<\/p>\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n
The Selfish Gene<\/em><\/a> by Richard Dawkins explains that all behaviors in nature lead back to genes trying to copy themselves. Selfishness and altruism can both be explained by animals acting to protect either themselves or their relatives (who will, by definition, share many of their genes). <\/p>\n\n\n\n Emperor penguins demonstrate selfish behavior when they push each other into the water to check for predators before diving in themselves. Meanwhile, bees demonstrate altruistic behavior when they sting to defend their hives\u2014while they may drive off creatures that would have eaten the hive\u2019s food source, the honey, the bees themselves often die in the process. <\/p>\n\n\n\n However, selfishness and altruism aren\u2019t always immediate life-or-death acts. For example, a bird that gives an alarm call upon seeing a predator is being altruistic, because the bird might draw that predator\u2019s attention to itself. It\u2019s a relatively small risk compared to that of a bee stinging an intruder, but it still counts as altruism.<\/p>\n\n\n\n It must be understood that the gene <\/em>is the unit of inheritance\u2014not the creature, species, or population. Therefore, humans are selfish by nature because it\u2019s rooted in gene selfishness.<\/strong> <\/p>\n\n\n\n Animals, including humans, are essentially organic machines built by genes, and genes are designed to survive and reproduce. Genes are selfish\u2014not consciously, of course, but those that still exist have out-competed countless other genes. This is ultimately selfish behavior\u2014that is, behavior that benefits the individual at the expense of others. <\/p>\n\n\n\n According to Dawkins\u2019s other book The God Delusion<\/em><\/a>, taking care of your children and ensuring that they grow up strong and healthy enough to have children of their own is one of the best ways to ensure the survival of your own genes<\/strong>. It is easy to see then why natural selection<\/a> would favor kin altruism<\/a> as a replicating behavior through generations. And sure enough, kin altruism\u2014caring for those with whom one shares a genetic link\u2014is widely seen not just in humans, but throughout the animal kingdom.<\/p>\n\n\n\n Genes also show their selfishness because altruism toward outside groups is rare, and toward different species is almost unheard of. For example, a human killing another human is one of the worst crimes possible, but we kill animals every day for food, in self-defense, or simply for sport. <\/p>\n\n\n\n Humans are something of a special case when it comes to selfishness and altruism. Unlike other animals, we can be taught<\/em> altruism and be convinced to go against our basic selfish nature\u2014although to exactly what extent is part of the ongoing nature vs. nurture debate.<\/p>\n\n\n\n Below we\u2019ll look at two arguments for whether humans are selfish by nature, and whether we are altruistic for ulterior motives. <\/p>\n\n\n\n Reciprocity\u2014the phenomenon by which we treat others as we have been treated by them\u2014is one of the strongest ties that bind society together.<\/p>\n\n\n\n Kin altruism is the mechanism by which individuals care for and protect individuals within their kin group (those with whom they share a blood relation). It\u2019s observed in the behavior of many non-human animals and can be explained by simple Darwinian instincts: if the ultimate goal is to ensure the survival of one\u2019s genes, it makes sense to be altruistic toward other members of the kin group. <\/p>\n\n\n\n But this does not fully explain the human <\/em>phenomenon of reciprocity as we observe it. Humans, unlike other animals, work with, care for, and protect people with whom they have minimal or no blood relation. If anything, such behavior cuts against <\/em>Darwinian impulse, as these other people are our \u201ccompetitors\u201d for scarce resources and their survival could be construed as hampering our own. Clearly, something else is going on.<\/p>\n\n\n\n What separates us from these other animals is the reciprocity reflex, according to Jonathan Haidt\u2019s book The Happiness Hypothesis<\/em><\/a>. This tells us to repay others when they do something for us. It\u2019s so deeply ingrained that we hardly think about it, yet we practice it all the time. When a friend treats you to lunch, you make sure you pick up the check the next time you go out. When your neighbors invite you to a party, you invite them the next time you\u2019re hosting an event.<\/p>\n\n\n\n We have the instinct to repay favors, even from strangers. From an evolutionary perspective, it works because it increases everyone\u2019s <\/em>chances of survival. The reciprocity reflex causes the other members of the group to help you if you have helped them, creating networks of mutual obligation. <\/p>\n\n\n\n This reflex is supported by two emotional sub-reflexes\u2014gratitude and vengeance. Gratitude causes us to aid those who\u2019ve aided us in the past; vengeance causes us to withhold aid from those who\u2019ve been stingy or selfish, making it less likely that free riders will exploit the community\u2019s altruism. This opens up the possibility of mutually beneficial cooperation, which makes the group as a whole stronger and strengthens social ties between members of a community.<\/p>\n\n\n\n Will self-sacrifice for others also be self-rewarding? To answer that, we should briefly look at the two main explanations for why humans engage in altruistic behavior.<\/p>\n\n\n\n But these do not fully explain the altruistic behavior we see. We often act altruistically even when there is no chance of reciprocity or direct benefit for ourselves, including people who don\u2019t believe in an afterlife. Something else must be at work. Altruism must provide us with more intrinsic benefits. <\/p>\n\n\n\n And studies have shown that engaging in altruistic behavior <\/strong>does <\/em><\/strong>lead to an increase in all measures of happiness.<\/strong> This is especially true for older adults. Because they are lonelier and have reduced social networks, altruism widens their circle and gives them new sources of comfort, as well as purpose.<\/p>\n\n\n\n Thus, while morality certainly encompasses far more than just altruism, we should not take that to mean that we shouldn\u2019t <\/em>be altruistic. By doing good for others, we are doing good for ourselves.<\/p>\n\n\n\n The Happiness Hypothesis<\/em><\/a> suggests that we act altruistically because humans are selfish by nature and want to feel good about altruistic acts. While that\u2019s true sometimes, Haidt\u2019s other book The Righteous Mind<\/em><\/a> and Richard Dawkins\u2019s The God Delusion<\/em><\/a> prove that we can grow beyond the selfishness we\u2019re born with.<\/p>\n\n\n\n We are hardwired to repay favors, even from strangers. From an evolutionary perspective, it makes sense because it increases everyone\u2019s <\/em>chances of survival. The reciprocity reflex causes the other members of your tribe to help you if you have helped them, creating networks of mutual obligation. <\/p>\n\n\n\n Reciprocity is key to the social glue that holds societies together. Especially in early human societies, which would have been small, tight-knit bands of mostly kin, it would be advantageous to cultivate a reputation as being trustworthy and reciprocal. Likewise, it would have been disadvantageous to cultivate a reputation as a selfish free rider\u2014because no one would be willing to help you in your time of need.<\/p>\n\n\n\n Darwin argued there are multiple reasons why humans first banded together:<\/p>\n\n\n\n It\u2019s clear based on the way that we evolved that in practice in actual armies, the coward will not be the one most likely to return home, he\u2019ll be the one most likely to be left behind and picked off. If he does<\/em> manage to make it back, his traits will be repulsive to finding a mate. This builds on itself, so every time a group selects for loyal people, the next generation will share that trait even more widely. <\/p>\n\n\n\n Clearly, it\u2019s not true that self-interest is the source of every<\/em> behavior. People donate anonymously to charities or put themselves in harm’s way to save people they don\u2019t know. Even if humans are selfish by nature, we\u2019re not like most other animals: We can occasionally <\/em>act selfless because we\u2019re taught to be.<\/p>\n\n\n\n Consider the response in America to the 9\/11 attacks: People drove hundreds of miles to New York in the days following to see if they could help dig people out of the wreckage. Many donated blood or signed up for military service. An event spurred most people in the country to think in a groupish<\/a> manner. <\/p>\n\n\n\n Experts are still divided on whether actions like rallying around the flag after a national tragedy are groupish activities or are selfish ones that just manifest differently than usual. Here are four examples that prove the former point right: <\/p>\n\n\n\nKin Altruism<\/strong><\/h3>\n\n\n\n
Are We Altruistic for Ulterior Motives?<\/strong><\/h2>\n\n\n\n
Being Altruistic for Happiness<\/strong><\/h3>\n\n\n\n
Self-Sacrifice<\/h4>\n\n\n\n
We Can be \u201cGroupish\u201d as Well as Selfish<\/strong><\/h3>\n\n\n\n
Evidence of Groupishness<\/strong><\/h4>\n\n\n\n