{"id":83928,"date":"2022-11-23T10:06:00","date_gmt":"2022-11-23T14:06:00","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/www.shortform.com\/blog\/?p=83928"},"modified":"2022-11-23T14:42:47","modified_gmt":"2022-11-23T18:42:47","slug":"morality-in-politics","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/www.shortform.com\/blog\/morality-in-politics\/","title":{"rendered":"Morality in Politics: Reason vs. Virtue"},"content":{"rendered":"\n

How should issues of morality be treated in politics? Should the government embrace one view of morality or avoid enforcing any specific moral code?<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Morality is a contentious subject in political philosophy. Liberalists argue that we should deemphasize moral questions in favor of reason and logic. Proponents of Aristotle\u2019s political theory<\/a>, on the other hand, consider moral questions crucial for politics.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Michael Sandel contrasts the two philosophies and how they might inform real-life political debates pertaining to morality.<\/p>\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n

Maximizing Reason: Liberalism<\/strong><\/h2>\n\n\n\n

First, Sandel describes liberalism and its emphasis on reason. This school of political philosophy developed during the Enlightenment (a period of rapid scientific and ideological change in 17th- and 18th-century Europe) and still strongly influences many of our political institutions today.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Sandel explains that liberalism tries to separate politics from people\u2019s personal backgrounds, identities, and moral beliefs.<\/strong> Instead, liberals argue that people should use logic and reason to discuss politics, law, and justice. Much like libertarians (an offshoot of the liberal tradition), liberals argue in favor of a \u201cvalue-neutral\u201d state that avoids promoting any one moral code over another and leaves people free to live their lives as they see fit. To this end, liberalism supports freedom of speech, the separation of church and state, and universal laws that apply equally to everyone regardless of their identity, background, or beliefs. <\/p>\n\n\n\n

Sandel discusses two philosophers to represent the classic and modern views of liberalism: 18th-century German philosopher Immanuel Kant and 20th-century American<\/a> philosopher John Rawls.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Classic Liberalism: Kantianism<\/strong><\/h3>\n\n\n\n

Kant\u2019s moral and political views emphasize reason above all else. Sandel explains that according to Kant, actions aren\u2019t moral unless you decide on them through purely rational deliberation. <\/strong>Kant argues that if you don\u2019t make a choice<\/a> entirely through reason, then you\u2019re making it due to innate instincts and preferences\u2014things you have no control over. Therefore, that choice wasn\u2019t freely made.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

For example, if you work at your job to make money for groceries and a place to live, then Kant argues your choice to work isn\u2019t freely chosen and therefore isn\u2019t a moral action\u2014it\u2019s not motivated by your purely rational view of what\u2019s morally best, but rather by your self-preservation instinct to seek food and shelter.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Kant explains that to freely make a moral choice<\/a>, you must dutifully and unconditionally obey a moral law<\/a> that you create for yourself. <\/strong>Or, to put it more simply, you must do what\u2019s moral only<\/em> because it\u2019s the moral thing to do and not for any other reason. <\/p>\n\n\n\n

Kant argues that to be entirely rational, moral laws must meet two standards (called the \u201ccategorical imperative\u201d<\/strong>):<\/p>\n\n\n\n

1) Moral laws must work universally. <\/strong>To test if a moral law derives entirely from reason, consider how it would function if everyone<\/em> followed it. If it doesn\u2019t work universally, then it\u2019s based at least partially on personal preference rather than entirely on reason. For example, John is furious at his annoying neighbor and thinks, \u201cI should hurt people who disrespect me.\u201d However, if everyone<\/em> dutifully followed that law, there would be massive and perpetual cycles of violence. Therefore, John\u2019s law is based on preference and isn\u2019t moral. <\/p>\n\n\n\n

2) Moral laws can\u2019t use rational beings as a means to an end. <\/strong>As previously explained, a moral law that you follow for its own sake has inherent value\u2014you follow it because it\u2019s the morally right thing to do, not because it gets you something else. Kant argues that human life is the same way: Rational humans<\/a> live life for its own sake and not for some other external goal. And since we live just to be alive, then living must have inherent value. Therefore, Kant believes that moral laws must respect the inherent value of human life.<\/strong> This means recognizing that human life is an end in itself and not using others (or ourselves) as a means to an end.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

For example, John wants to punch his annoying neighbor. However, if he did that he\u2019d be using his neighbor as a means <\/em>to the end <\/em>of getting out his anger and feeling better about himself. Therefore, according to the categorical imperative<\/a>, John punching his neighbor is immoral. <\/p>\n\n\n\n

Modern Liberalism: Rawlsianism<\/strong><\/h3>\n\n\n\n

For a more contemporary example of liberalism, Sandel discusses 20th-century American philosopher John Rawls. While Rawls has the same goal as Kant\u2014defining justice entirely through reason\u2014he approaches it in a different way. Instead of appealing to universal moral laws, Rawls focuses entirely on how a group of equally competent and entirely rational individuals would organize society<\/strong>. <\/strong>This organization would determine the distribution of benefits (wealth, political power, rights) and obligations (laws, expectations). Essentially, Rawls tries to define justice in a way that he says any<\/em> rational and self-interested person could agree with.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

To that end, Rawls creates a thought experiment<\/a> he calls \u201cthe original position.\u201d<\/strong> In the original position, everyone comes together as rational, self-interested equals to debate the definition of justice until they find one that everyone agrees with. In this hypothetical, people don\u2019t know the specific circumstances of their lives\u2014things like wealth, religion, race, sexuality, and so on. This means people will argue for terms that apply fairly to everyone<\/em> regardless of their circumstances. For example, in the original position, Tom doesn\u2019t know how wealthy he is. Therefore, he won\u2019t argue for terms that benefit the rich at the expense of the poor\u2014for all he knows, he\u2019s<\/em> poor (or could become poor). <\/p>\n\n\n\n

Rawls suggests that the original position results in two terms (or something similar to them):<\/p>\n\n\n\n

  1. Everyone has guaranteed basic individual rights. <\/strong><\/li>
  2. Inequalities of power and money can exist, but only when they benefit the less fortunate (and the least fortunate most of all).<\/strong><\/li><\/ol>\n\n\n\n

    Term one ensures that nobody will be oppressed or denied freedoms for the benefit of others. Term two ensures that people can<\/em> get ahead socially or economically, but not at the expense of leaving other people behind to suffer. Much like Kant, Rawls\u2019s rules are universal\u2014he believes that they can justly resolve any political question.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

    Maximizing Virtue: Aristotle\u2019s Political Theory<\/strong><\/h2>\n\n\n\n

    Sandel contrasts liberalism with the political theory of Aristotle, the 4th-century BC Athenian philosopher. Unlike liberal philosophers, Aristotle believes that the questions of morality in politics should not <\/em>be separated from personal life circumstances. To demonstrate why this is the case, Sandel focuses on two main themes of Aristotle\u2019s viewpoint:<\/p>\n\n\n\n

    Theme #1: Teleology and Justice<\/strong><\/h3>\n\n\n\n

    Aristotle has a \u201cteleological\u201d view of the world\u2014in other words, he believes that everything has an end goal or purpose (a telos<\/em> in ancient Greek). Sandel explains that Aristotle uses this view to explain politics as a whole as well as the relationship between politics and individuals:<\/p>\n\n\n\n

    1) The <\/strong>telos<\/em><\/strong> of politics, according to Aristotle, is to create laws and a society that help people live satisfying and virtuous lives.<\/strong> While liberalism looks to give people the opportunity and freedom to live<\/a> well and be moral if they so choose<\/em>, Aristotle believes that there shouldn\u2019t be a choice.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

    2)<\/strong> But the definition of \u201cliving well\u201d varies depending on the person, explains Aristotle\u2014different kinds of people have their own different <\/strong>telos <\/em><\/strong>(purposes in life) and require different things to achieve them. <\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

    For example, imagine someone who\u2019s directionless and can\u2019t function in society on their own. To Aristotle, this person would have the telos<\/em> of obedience\u2014for them to flourish and live the best possible life, they\u2019d need direction, supervision, and help from a superior. Aristotle says that in this case, enslaving this person is moral\u2014it helps both the enslaved person and the enslaver. However, if the enslaved person rejected their status or tried to escape, then Aristotle says they should go free, since their rejection shows that they don\u2019t have the telos<\/em> of being enslaved. <\/p>\n\n\n\n

    Theme #2: Leaders With Merit<\/strong><\/h3>\n\n\n\n

    The second crucial part of Aristotle\u2019s political theory that Sandel discusses has to do with merit and \u201cdesert\u201d (a philosophical term meaning \u201cbeing deserving of something\u201d). These are the main guidelines Aristotle uses for distributing social goods like rights, wealth, and political power. He reasons that society should give goods to the people who can use them best<\/strong>\u2014for example, the best tools to the best carpenter, or the most land to the best farmers. Since Aristotle considers politics as the application of virtue, he concludes that the most<\/em> virtuous people should hold power. This ties in with the telos<\/em> of politics: Since the goal of politics is to make people live virtuously, it follows that a virtuous person is best suited to this task. <\/p>\n\n\n\n

    To Aristotle, this all takes place in the context of a community as a whole\u2014the best farmer wouldn\u2019t get the most land just so they could grow their personal wealth. Instead, said farmer would use their skill to grow food for everyone<\/em> in the community. <\/p>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"

    How should issues of morality be treated in politics? Should the government embrace one view of morality or avoid enforcing any specific moral code? Morality is a contentious subject in political philosophy. Liberalists argue that we should deemphasize moral questions in favor of reason and logic. Proponents of Aristotle\u2019s political theory, on the other hand, consider moral questions crucial for politics. Michael Sandel contrasts the two philosophies and how they might inform real-life political debates pertaining to morality.<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":7,"featured_media":44621,"comment_status":"open","ping_status":"open","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"_jetpack_memberships_contains_paid_content":false,"footnotes":""},"categories":[20,21,275],"tags":[804],"class_list":["post-83928","post","type-post","status-publish","format-standard","has-post-thumbnail","hentry","category-ethics","category-philosophy","category-politics","tag-justice","","tg-column-two"],"yoast_head":"\nMorality in Politics: Reason vs. Virtue - Shortform Books<\/title>\n<meta name=\"description\" content=\"How should issues of morality be treated in politics? 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